Reactive-transport modeling of fly ash–water–brines interactions from laboratory-scale column studies

Dynamic leaching tests are important studies that provide more insights into time-dependent leaching mechanisms of any given solid waste. Hydrogeochemical modeling using PHREEQC was applied for column modeling of two ash recipes and brines generated from South African coal utility plants, Sasol and Eskom. The modeling results were part of a larger ash–brine study aimed at acquiring knowledge on (i) quantification and characterization of the products formed when ash is in contact with water–brines in different scenarios, (ii) the mineralogical changes associated with water–brine–ash interactions over time, (iii) species concentration, and (iv) leaching and transport controlling factors. The column modeling was successfully identified and quantified as important reactive mineralogical phases controlling major, minor and trace elements’ release. The pH of the solution was found to be a very important controlling factor in leaching chemistry. The highest mineralogical transformation took place in the first 10 days of ash contact with either water or brines, and within 0.1 m from the column inflow. Many of the major and trace elements Ca, Mg, Na, K, Sr, S(VI), Fe, are leached easily into water systems and their concentration fronts were high at the beginning (within 0.1 m from the column inflow and within the first 10 days) upon contact with the liquid phase. However, their concentration decreased with time until a steady state was reached. Modeling results also revealed that geochemical reactions taking place during ash–water–brine interactions does affect the porosity of the ash, whereas the leaching processes lead to increased porosity. Besides supporting experimental data, modeling results gave predictive insights on leaching of elements which may directly impact on the environment, particularly ground water. These predictions will help develop scenarios and offer potential guide for future sustainable waste management practices as a way of addressing the co-disposal of brines within inland ash dams and heaps.     

Nonlinear extensions of a fractal–multifractal approach for environmental modeling

We present the extension of a deterministic fractal geometric procedure aimed at representing the complexity of patterns encountered in environmental applications. The procedure, which is based on transformations of multifractal distributions via fractal functions, is extended through the introduction of nonlinear perturbations in the generating iterated linear maps. We demonstrate, by means of various simulations based on changes in parameters, that the nonlinear perturbations generate yet a richer collection of interesting patterns, as reflected by their overall shapes and their statistical and multifractal properties. It is shown that the nonlinear extensions yield structures that closely resemble complex hydrologic spatio-temporal datasets, such as rainfall and runoff time series, and width-functions of river networks. The implications of this nonlinear approach for environmental modeling and prediction are discussed.     

Generalized cyclic p–y curve modeling for analysis of laterally loaded piles

Owing to their simplicity and reasonable accuracy, Beam on Nonlinear Winkler Foundation (BNWF) models are widely used for the analysis of laterally loaded piles. Their main drawback is idealizing the soil continuum with discrete uncoupled springs representing the soil reactions to pile movement. Static p–y curves, obtained from limited full-scaled field tests, are generally used as a backbone curve of the model. However, these empirically derived p–y curves could not incorporate the effects of various pile properties and soil continuity. The strain wedge method (SWM) has been improved to assess the nonlinear p–y curve response of laterally loaded piles based on a three-dimensional soil–pile interaction through a passive wedge developed in front of the pile. In this paper, the SWM based p–y curve is implemented as the backbone curves of developed BNWF model to study the nonlinear response of single pile under cyclic lateral loading. The developed nonlinear model is capable of accounting for various important soil–pile interaction response features such as soil and pile yielding, cyclic degradation of soil stiffness and strength under generalized loading, soil–pile gap formation with soil cave-in and recompression, and energy dissipation. Some experimental tests are studied to verify the BNWF model and examine the effect of each factor on the response of laterally loaded pile embedded in sand and clay. The experimental data and computed results agree well, confirming the model ability to predict the response of piles under one-way and two-way cyclic loading. The results show that the developed model can satisfactorily simulate the pile stiffness hardening due to soil cave in and sand densification as observed in the experiment. It is also concluded from the results that the gap formation and soil degradation have significant effects on the increase of lateral pile-head deflection and maximum bending moment of the pile in cohesive soils.     

Effect of dynamic soil–bridge interaction modeling assumptions on the calculated seismic response of integral bridges

In this study, the effect of soil–structure modeling assumptions and simplifications on the seismic analyses results of integral bridges (IBs) is investigated. For this purpose, five structural models of IBs are built in decreasing levels of complexity starting from a nonlinear structural model including close numerical simulation of the behavior of the foundation and backfill soil and gradually simplifying the model to a level where the effect of backfill and foundation soil is totally excluded. Nonlinear time history analyses of the modeled IBs are then conducted using a set of ground motions with various intensities representing small, medium and large intensity earthquakes. The analyses results are then used to assess the effect of modeling complexity level on the calculated seismic response of IBs. The nonlinear soil-bridge interaction modeling assumptions are found to have considerable effects on the calculated seismic response of IBs under medium and large intensity earthquakes.     

Reduction of peak ground velocity by nonlinear soil response–Ⅱ:excitation by a P-wave pulse

We study the reduction of peak velocity on the ground surface of a soil valley caused by loss of wave energy by large nonlinear strains and strain localization inside the valley, for excitation by a half-sine P-wave pulse. This study is a follow up to our previous study of out of plane response for excitation by an SH-pulse. In this paper, we consider the inplane response, and assume that the soil material does not support tension, but the normal stress at a point in the soil can be compression(negative) or zero. A point in the soil with zero stress behaves as a stress-free point, it does not transmit normal stress and appears as a crack point. Because of this, along with the nonlinear response associated with compression and shear, the in-plane response in this study is more complex than that of the out-of-plane SH response. We study the interplay of two opposing effects:(i) jump in impedance from a higher value(half-space) to a lower value(valley), which amplifies the linear motions at the free surface of the valley, and(ii) the occurrence of nonlinear zones in the valley, which reduce the motion at the valley surface.     

An efficient fiber beam-column element considering flexure–shear interaction and anchorage bond-slip effect for cyclic analysis of RC structures

In this paper, a fiber beam-column element considering flexure–shear interaction and bond-slip effect is developed for cyclic analysis of reinforced concrete (RC) structures. The element is based on conventional displacement-based Timoshenko beam theory, where the transverse shear deformation is included, and adopts the fiber model to describe the section force–deformation behavior. In the fiber model, shear deformation is assumed to be uniformly distributed along the section and is only resisted by concrete, thus the multi-dimensional concrete damage model is used for concrete fibers and therefore flexure–shear interaction is reflected naturally at the material level. Meanwhile, to account for the significant bond-slip effect at critical regions, the anchorage slip of bars at these regions is analytically derived. Then it is used to modify the uniaxial stress–strain model for steel fibers by assuming that the total strain can be treated as the sum of the bar deformation and anchorage slip, therefore the bond-slip effect is implicitly but simply represented. To validate the proposed element, a series of RC member and structure tests under cyclic loading are simulated. The results indicate that the proposed element can predict cyclic responses of RC structures, and can be used as a reliable tool for analysis of RC structures.     

Nonlinear response analyses of a soil–structure interaction system using transformed energy transmitting boundary in the time domain

The energy transmitting boundary used in programs such as FLUSH and ALUSH is a very accurate and useful technique for the earthquake response analysis of soil–structure interaction systems. However, it is applicable only to linear analyses or equivalent linear analyses, because it can be calculated only in the frequency domain. The author has proposed methods for transforming frequency-dependent impedance into the time domain. In this paper, an earthquake response analysis method for a soil–structure interaction system, using the energy transmitting boundary in the time domain, is proposed. First, the transform of the transmitting boundary matrices to the time domain using the methods proposed by the author is studied. Then, linear and nonlinear time history earthquake response analyses using the boundary are performed. Through these studies, the validity and efficiency of the proposed methods are confirmed.     

Seismic vulnerability assessment of a mixed masonry–RC building aggregate by linear and nonlinear analyses

From the beginning of the twentieth century, and due to the rapid increase of reinforced concrete (RC) usage, mixed masonry–RC buildings have emerged. In Lisbon, Portugal, old mixed masonry–RC buildings appeared between 1920 and 1960, representing the transition period between masonry and proper RC. These buildings are often integrated in blocks, and frequently share the side-walls, implying, thus, the need to assess the seismic vulnerability of building aggregates. The present paper approaches the seismic vulnerability assessment of a specific type of old mixed masonry–RC buildings in Lisbon. The study comprises the analysis of a building, both as an isolated structure and inserted in its aggregate, using two approaches: (1) linear dynamic analysis with SAP2000 and (2) nonlinear static analysis by means of 3Muri/Tremuri software. A comparison of both approaches derives a good matching between the obtained results. However, a nonlinear analysis is required to identify, in an adequate manner, the critical areas of the structure requiring strengthening.     

Latitudinal patterns of export production recorded in surface sediments of the Chilean Patagonian fjords (41–55°S) as a response to water column productivity

The Chilean Patagonian fjords region (41–56°S) is characterized by highly complex geomorphology and hydrographic conditions, and strong seasonal and latitudinal patterns in precipitation, freshwater discharge, glacier coverage, and light regime; all of these directly affect biological production in the water column. In this study, we compiled published and new information on water column properties (primary production, nutrients) and surface sediment characteristics (biogenic opal, organic carbon, molar C/N, bulk sedimentary δ¹³C_org) from the Chilean Patagonian fjords between 41°S and 55°S, describing herein the latitudinal pattern of water column productivity and its imprint in the underlying sediments. Based on information collected at 188 water column and 118 sediment sampling sites, we grouped the Chilean fjords into four main zones: Inner Sea of Chiloé (41° to ～44°S), Northern Patagonia (44° to ～47°S), Central Patagonia (48–51°S), and Southern Patagonia (Magellan Strait region between 52° and 55°S). Primary production in the Chilean Patagonian fjords was the highest in spring–summer, reflecting the seasonal pattern of water column productivity. A clear north–south latitudinal pattern in primary production was observed, with the highest average spring and summer estimates in the Inner Sea of Chiloé (2427 and 5860 mg C m^?2 d^?1) and Northern Patagonia (1667 and 2616 mg C m^?2 d^?1). This pattern was closely related to the higher availability of nutrients, greater solar radiation, and extended photoperiod during the productive season in these two zones. The lowest spring value was found in Caleta Tortel, Central Patagonia (91 mg C m^?2 d^?1), a site heavily influenced by glacier meltwater and river discharge loaded with glacial sediments. Biogenic opal, an important constituent of the Chilean fjord surface sediments (Si_OPAL ～1–13%), reproduced the general north–south pattern of primary production and was directly related to water column silicic acid concentrations. Surface sediments were also rich in organic carbon content and the highest values corresponded to locations far away from glacier influence, sites within fjords, and/or semi-enclosed and protected basins, reflecting both autochthonous (water column productivity) and allochthonous sources (contribution of terrestrial organic matter from fluvial input to the fjords). A gradient was observed from the more oceanic sites to the fjord heads (west–east) in terms of bulk sedimentary δ¹³C_org and C/N ratios; the more depleted (δ¹³C_org ?26‰) and higher C/N (23) values corresponded to areas close to rivers and glaciers. A comparison of the Chilean Patagonian fjords with other fjord systems in the world revealed high variability in primary production for all fjord systems as well as similar surface sediment geochemistry due to the mixing of marine and terrestrial organic carbon.