Estimation of Nocturnal Area Fluxes of Carbon Cycle Gases in Saint Petersburg Suburbs

Carbon dioxide, methane, and carbon monoxide are the carbon cycle gases, the data on their emissions are needed when monitoring air pollution and developing methods for reducing anthropogenic emissions to the atmosphere and for climate forecasting. The estimates of nocturnal area fluxes for CO₂, CH₄, and CO presented for a suburb of Saint Petersburg (Peterhof) are obtained using the box model and continuous observations of concentration of these gases. The mean values of CH₄, CO₂, and CO fluxes estimated for Peterhof for 2014–2015 are 44 ± 27, 6100 ± 4000, and 90 ± 100 t/(km² year), respectively. The intensity of the CO area flux has pronounced seasonal variations characterized by the maximum of ~(160 ± 120) t/(km² year) in November—February and by the minimum of ~(30 ± 20) t/(km² year) in June-July. The analysis of the ratio of CO/CO₂ fluxes identified the main types of anthropogenic sources typical of Peterhof: motor transport, natural gas combustion, and the use of wood stoves for the heating of private low-rise buildings (in the cold season).     

The Secondary Sea Level Maximum during Floods in Saint Petersburg and Its Simulation with Numerical Models

The study considered two- and three-dimensional models used to compute the Baltic Sea level. It is demonstrated for three floods that the BALT-P three-dimensional hydrodynamic model and the INMOM three-dimensional hydrothermodynamics model successfully simulate extreme sea level fluctuations during the floods in Saint Petersburg. To simulate extreme sea level fluctuations in the Baltic Sea, it is appropriate to use the BALT-P model which requires less input information. The analysis of simulation data for the considered cases reveals that the reason for the occurrence of the second flood maximum is the excitation of the wind-induced fundamental single-node seiche of the Baltic Sea.     

Analysis of wind conditions by using a complex of higher frequency forecast and satellite data during the flooding period on February 3, 2008 in Saint Petersburg

A new approach to estimating wind conditions over the Gulf of Finland aquatorium during the flood event observed on February 3, 2008 is considered in this paper. This approach is based on joint assimilation of the higher frequency model output data and measurements obtained from a geostationary satellite. High accuracy of the computed current values of the maximum wind speed and direction has been noted. To provide the advanced flood warning, an adapted methodology based on the regional NWP model hourly data only has been applied. It was found that computed dynamics of changes in expected values of wind speed and direction over the east part of the Gulf of Finland aquatorium well coheres with the actual dynamics of the flood height. Profitability of the developed maps for analysis and forecasting of wind conditions over the sea areas where wind observations are unavailable.     

Long-lasting floods buffer the thermal regime of the Pampas

The presence of large water masses influences the thermal regime of nearby land shaping the local climate of coastal areas by the ocean or large continental lakes. Large surface water bodies have an ephemeral nature in the vast sedimentary plains of the Pampas (Argentina) where non-flooded periods alternate with flooding cycles covering up to one third of the landscape for several months. Based on temperature records from 17 sites located 1 to 700 km away from the Atlantic coast and MODIS land surface temperature data, we explore the effects of floods on diurnal and seasonal thermal ranges as well as temperature extremes. In non-flooded periods, there is a linear increase of mean diurnal thermal range (DTR) from the coast towards the interior of the region (DTR increasing from 10 to 16 K, 0.79 K/100 km, r ² = 0.81). This relationship weakens during flood episodes when the DTR of flood-prone inland locations shows a decline of 2 to 4 K, depending on surface water coverage in the surrounding area. DTR even approaches typical coastal values 500 km away from the ocean in the most flooded location that we studied during the three flooding cycles recorded in the study period. Frosts-free periods, a key driver of the phenology of both natural and cultivated ecosystems, are extended by up to 55 days during floods, most likely as a result of enhanced ground heat storage across the landscape (~2.7 fold change in day-night heat transfer) combined with other effects on the surface energy balance such as greater night evaporation rates. The reduced thermal range and longer frost-free periods affect plant growth development and may offer an opportunity for longer crop growing periods, which may not only contribute to partially compensating for regional production losses caused by floods, but also open avenues for flood mitigation through higher plant evapotranspirative water losses.     

Atmospheric moisture budget and floods in the Yangtze River basin, China

In this paper, we explored the trends of the atmospheric moisture budget, precipitation, and streamflow in summer during 1961 to 2005 and possible correlations between them by using the linear regression method in the Yangtze River basin, China. The results indicate that: (1) increasing tendencies can be detected in the atmospheric moisture budget, precipitation and streamflow in the Yangtze River basin; however, the significant increasing trends occur only in the atmospheric moisture budget and precipitation in the middle and lower Yangtze River basin; (2) both the ratio of summer moisture budget to annual moisture budget and the ratio of summer precipitation to annual precipitation exhibit a significant increasing trend in the Yangtze River basin. The ratio of summer streamflow to annual streamflow is in a significant increasing trend in Hankou station. Significant increasing summer precipitation can be taken as the major controlling factor responsible for the higher probability of flood hazard occurrences in the Yangtze River basin. The consecutively increasing summer precipitation is largely due to the consistently increasing moisture budget; (3) the zonal geopotential height anomaly between 1991 and 2005 and 1961 and 1990 is higher from the south to the north, which to a large degree, limits the northward propagation of the summer monsoon to north China. As a result, the summer moisture budget increases in the middle and lower Yangtze River basin, which leads to more summer precipitation. This paper sheds light on the changing properties of precipitation and streamflow and possible underlying causes, which will be greatly helpful for better understanding of the changes of precipitation and streamflow in the Yangtze River basin.     

一次黄河气旋特大暴雨过程分析

中国东部位于东亚季风区,随着东亚夏季风的爆发、盛行和向北推进,东亚夏季风主雨带明显自南向北移动,在中国东部地区依次形成华南前汛期雨期、江淮梅雨季和北方雨季。这三个雨季和地区也是暴雨多发期和地区。因而中国地区的暴雨既不同于印度季风区的热带类型暴雨,也不同于北美与欧洲地区中纬度型的暴雨,它是由热带季风气流与来自中高纬的冷空气强烈相互作用下发生的,不但强度大,而且持续时间长和范围广。早在20世纪初期,中国科学家就开始研究中国暴雨,经过长期的努力,在暴雨理论、暴雨分析和预报方面,获得了重大的进展。本文将对中国暴雨的理论与重要进展作一综述和评论,共包括四个方面：（1）中国暴雨的主要气候特点;（2）中国暴雨理论研究的发展历程;（3）中国暴雨发生机理研究的主要成果;（4）未来中国对流尺度暴雨理论研究的挑战。

     

渭河流域2次洪灾期间体积降水量分析

针对2003年8—10月和2005年9—10月期间渭河流域洪涝灾害,提出了过程体积降水量的概念及其计算方法,在计算出洛河、泾河、渭河流域上游、渭河流域下游及渭河流域总体积降水量的基础上,将体积降水量与临潼、华县水文站的水位和流量进行了对比分析。结果表明:水位对体积降水量有较好的即时响应,流量对体积降水量有较好的延迟响应。     

1998年和2016年北大西洋海温异常对中国夏季降水影响的数值模拟研究

基于1979-2016年ERA-Interim再分析资料和CAM5.3模式,研究了2016年和1998年北大西洋海温异常对中国夏季降水以及大尺度环流的可能影响及其机制。结果表明,这两年前夏（6-7月）长江中下游及其以南地区降水均异常偏多,但1998年降水异常较2016年更为显著。后夏（8月）,2016年长江以南地区降水异常偏多,长江-黄河流域降水异常偏少,而1998年降水异常分布与之相反。2016年和1998年夏季中国东部降水异常的差异与西北太平洋对流层低层异常反气旋以及欧亚中高纬度环流变化的共同作用直接相关。敏感性数值试验的结果表明,北大西洋海温异常的显著差异是导致2016年和1998年夏季中国东部降水以及大尺度环流异常存在明显差异的重要原因之一。一方面,北大西洋海温异常可以通过改变欧亚中高纬度环流进而对中国夏季降水产生影响。1998年北大西洋海温异常自热带至副极地呈类似"+ - +"型分布,这种海温异常型能够在前夏欧亚中高纬度地区激发出双阻型的环流异常响应。2016年北大西洋海温异常自热带至副极地呈相对弱的"- + -"型分布,欧亚中高纬度环流异常响应总体偏弱。另一方面,北大西洋海温异常还可以通过影响热带纬向环流进而对西北太平洋对流层低层异常反气旋起调制作用。1998年北大西洋海温异常对夏季西北太平洋异常反气旋起增强作用,这与热带印度洋-太平洋海温的强迫作用相协调。然而,2016年北大西洋海温异常则有利于西北太平洋异常反气旋的减弱,这与热带印度洋-太平洋海温的强迫作用相反。因此,在这3个大洋的协同作用下,2016年和1998年前夏西北太平洋异常反气旋均偏强,但前者的振幅弱于后者。在后夏,1998年西北太平洋对流层低层仍受异常反气旋控制,2016年则为异常气旋控制。      

降雨对陕西山洪灾害的触发作用

对近 2 0 a陕西山洪灾害和降水资料分析的基础上 ,得出陕西山洪灾害分布规律 ,进一步分析了气象条件与地质灾害发生的关系 ,确定了降雨强度与不同类型山洪灾害的对应关系 ,给出了不同区域不同降雨日数和降雨强度诱发山洪灾害的临界雨量     

On the link between extreme floods and excess monsoon epochs in South Asia

This paper provides a synoptic view of extreme monsoon floods on all the nine large rivers of South Asia and their association with the excess (above-normal) monsoon rainfall periods. Annual maximum flood series for 18 gauging stations spread over four countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal) and long-term monsoon rainfall data were analyzed to ascertain whether the extreme floods were clustered in time and whether they coincided with multi-decade excess monsoon rainfall epochs at the basin level. Simple techniques, such as the Cramer’s t-test, regression and Mann–Kendall (MK) tests and Hurst method were used to evaluate the trends and patterns of the flood and rainfall series. MK test reveals absence of any long-term tendency in all the series. However, the Cramer’s t test and Hurst-Mandelbrot rescaled range statistic provide evidence that both rainfall and flood time series are persistent. Using the Cramer’s t-test the excess monsoon epochs for each basin were identified. The excess monsoon periods for different basins were found to be highly asynchronous with respect to duration as well as the beginning and end. Three main conclusions readily emerge from the analyses. Extreme floods (>90th percentile) in South Asia show a tendency to cluster in time. About three-fourth of the extreme floods have occurred during the excess monsoon periods between ~1840 and 2000 AD, implying a noteworthy link between the two. The frequency of large floods was higher during the post-1940 period in general and during three decades (1940s, 1950s and 1980s) in particular.     

20世纪90年代以来广西重大水旱灾害回顾

简略描述20世纪90年代以来广西气象灾害情况,较为详细地分析了造成广西严重灾害的暴雨洪涝、干旱、热带气旋的分布特征及灾害损失情况。结果显示,1994年气象灾害直接经济损失最大;1994年是新中国成立以来暴雨洪涝灾害最严重的一年,其它特大暴雨洪涝发生在1996、1998、2001年和2005年;特大干旱损失最严重的是2003年;出现热带气旋最多的年份是1994年,2001年的灾损最严重。     

20世纪90年代以来广西重大水旱灾害回顾

简略描述20世纪90年代以来广西气象灾害情况,较为详细地分析了造成广西严重灾害的暴雨洪涝、干旱、热带气旋的分布特征及灾害损失情况。结果显示,1994年气象灾害直接经济损失最大;1994年是新中国成立以来暴雨洪涝灾害最严重的一年,其它特大暴雨洪涝发生在1996、1998、2001年和2005年;特大干旱损失最严重的是2003年;出现热带气旋最多的年份是1994年,2001年的灾损最严重。     

Hydrodynamic Instability of the Periodic System of Updrafts and Downdrafts in the Atmosphere

The linear hydrodynamic instability of the spatially periodic system of updrafts and downdrafts in a stably stratified atmosphere is studied. Such formulation of the problem is used to simulate the cloud systems observed in the atmosphere, when the zones of updrafts correspond to clouds and those of downdrafts correspond to intercloud intervals. A rather unexpected conclusion was made that the consideration of turbulent viscosity and thermal conductivity of the atmosphere as well as of radiative cooling leads to the instability at the Richardson numbers exceeding the critical value of 1/8 for the nondissipative case.     

长江、黄河大洪水前期地球系统演变的分析

通过分析江、淮、黄、海四大洪共１４个大洪水年的前期地震场特征,发现大洪水前在青藏高原东南地区、亚欧中纬地带和台湾以东洋面三处的有强地震发生,若强震出现在中印缅热点则对应着江淮大小;强震出现在川青甘地区则对应着黄海河大水。引发大水的直接原因是本地区地热涡的强烈发展,它因刚好位于数组”同向等距地热涡族”的相交点上,交相干共振的结果,文中详细分析了１９５４和１９８２年两个个例。最后分析了“中印缅热点”的     

广东暴雨洪涝灾害损失定量评估

广东暴雨强度大、范围广、季节长,造成的灾害重、影响大。为合理、定量地评估广东暴雨洪涝过程强度及其损失,基于1994—2018年广东致灾暴雨过程和相应灾情资料,构建了广东暴雨过程综合强度评估模型和灾情指数模型,并采用百分位数法进行暴雨强度和灾情等级划分,以第60、第80、第90和第95百分位数为临界阈值,分别将致灾暴雨过程强度和灾情划分为弱(1级)、较弱(2级)、中等(3级)、较强(4级)、强(5级)和微灾、小灾、中灾、大灾、巨灾5个等级,进而分析了不同强度等级暴雨过程可能造成的人口、农作物、房屋和经济等承灾体损失。结果表明:(1)1994—2018年间,广东各等级致灾暴雨过程主要出现在4—9月的汛期,5—7月尤其多,要特别注意防御;(2)致灾暴雨过程强度等级与各类承灾体灾情指数存在显著正相关关系:随暴雨强度的增强,倒塌房屋数呈指数增长,受灾人口、死亡人数、农作物受灾面积和直接经济损失呈线性增长;(3)平均而言,当暴雨强度达到强(5级)等级时,受灾人口、死亡人数、农作物受灾面积、倒塌房屋数和直接经济损失标准分别约为187.19万人、22人、10.52×10^4 hm^2、1.12万间和13.07亿元。     

Implications of climate change due to the enhanced greenhouse effect on floods and droughts in Australia

Potential impacts of climate change on heavy rainfall events and flooding in the Australian region are explored using the results of a general circulation model (GCM) run in an equilibrium enhanced greenhouse experiment. In the doubled CO₂ simulation, the model simulates an increase in the frequency of high-rainfall events and a decrease in the frequency of low-rainfall events. This result applies over most of Australia, is statistically more significant than simulated changes in total rainfall, and is supported by theoretical considerations. We show that this result implies decreased return periods for heavy rainfall events. The further implication is that flooding could increase, although we discuss here the many difficulties associated with assessing in quantitative terms the significance of the modelling results for the real world.The second part of the paper assesses the implications of climate change for drought occurrence in Australia. This is undertaken using an off-line soil water balance model driven by observed time series of rainfall and potential evaporation to determine the sensitivity of the soil water regime to changes in rainfall and temperature, and hence potential evaporation. Potential impacts are assessed at nine sites, representing a range of climate regimes and possible climate futures, by linking this sensitivity analysis with scenarios of regional climate change, derived from analysis of enhanced greenhouse experiment results from five GCMs. Results indicate that significant drying may be limited to the south of Australia. However, because the direction of change in terms of the soil water regime is uncertain at all sites and for all seasons, there is no basis for statements about how drought potential may change.     

A methodology of determination of the maximum water discharges and volumes of rain floods in small catchments

A method of computation of maximum discharges caused by rainfalls fallen onto small catchments is presented. This method is based on usage of the catchments’ hydrometeorological parameters, soil properties and observed characteristics of rainfalls.     

1998年长江流域洪水与海温异常关系的数值模拟研究

用IAP／LASG GOALS模式对1998年长江流域洪水与太平洋和印度洋海表温度异常之间的关系进行了数值模拟研究。利用观测的全年海表温度，模式能再现1998年夏季长江流域的暴雨，模式也能再现观测的1998年夏季西太平洋副高异常的基本特征。设计了一系列不同海区和不同时段的海温异常的敏感性试验。试验结果表明：印度洋海温异常是造成1998年长江流域洪水的主要因子；印度洋和西太平洋海温异常与西太副高的异常有更紧密的关系；夏季海表温度异常对1998年长江流域暴雨和西太副高异常的作用与冬春海温异常的作用相比要大得多。     

Hydrodynamic model of wind field in a moving typhoon

An algorithm is developed for solving the hydrodynamic equations describing wind field structure in a typhoon. The specific feature of the algorithm consists in solving an overdetermined set of equations: given radial profiles of pressure and vertical velocity component, horizontal wind components are found. Projection of angular momentum on tangential direction plays a role of “error of closure.” The calculated wind fields in resting and moving typhoons are presented. As an example, the whole lifecycle of Typhoon Ivan (September 2–17, 2004) is described in detail.