A multidisciplinary approach for rock spreading and block sliding investigation in the north-western coast of Malta

Landslides are widespread along the north-western coast of the Island of Malta and are strictly linked to the structural setting. Exemplary cases of rock spreading and block sliding phenomena characterise this stretch of coast. They are favoured by the overposition of two different geological units widely outcropping there, the Blue Clay Formation and the Upper Coralline Limestone Formation. The latter forms a wide plateau, bordered by vertical cliffs. At the foot of the cliffs, clayey terrains crop out and develop gentle slopes covered by large blocks detached and moved by rock spreading and block sliding phenomena. These mass movements are favoured by the fragile behaviour of limestones, which cap clays, otherwise characterised by visco-plastic properties. In order to investigate the kinematics and the evolution of these types of coastal landslides, a multidisciplinary and multitechnical approach was applied on a study site, named Il-Prajjet, which provides a spectacular case of rock spreading evolving into block sliding. This paper illustrates the results achieved by means of different engineering geological and geophysical techniques allied with traditional detailed geomorphological survey and mapping. In particular, the surface displacements of the landslides were determined using long-term GPS observations, acquired approximately every 6 months, over a 4.5-year period. A network of GPS benchmarks were distributed on the edge of a limestone plateau affected by rock spreading and on a series of displaced blocks making up a large block slide, finally enabling the definition of the state of activity and the rates of movement to be performed. In addition, the results deriving from two continuous fissurimeters more recently installed at the edge of two persistent joints over the block sliding area are outlined, with reference to the correlation between variations of crack apertures and precipitation input. In order to identify main structural discontinuities and to reconstruct variability of underground surface contact between clays and overlying limestones, Resistivity Tomography profiles and GPR investigations were carried out. Finally, the results obtained by combining the outputs of geophysical surveys and different field monitoring activities can be considered a first step on which numerical models can be developed and validated, in order to assess landslide hazard and risk of this stretch of Maltese coastline.     

A new approach for application of rock mass classification on rock slope stability assessment

The objective of this paper is to present a new rock mass classification system which can be appropriate for rock slope stability assessment. In this paper an evaluation model based on combining the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and the Fuzzy Delphi method (FDM) was presented for assessing slope rock mass quality estimates. This research treats the slope rock mass classification as a group decision problem, and applies the fuzzy logic theory as the criterion to calculate the weighting factors. In addition, several rock slopes of the Southern Cross-Island Highway in Taiwan were selected as the case study examples. After determining the slope rock mass quality estimates for each cases, the Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) model was used to classify those that are stable or not, and the discriminant functions which can determine failure probability of rock slopes were carried out by the LDA procedure. Afterward, the results may be compared with slope unstable hazards occurring actually, and then the relation and difference between them were discussed. Results show that the proposed method can be used to assess the stability of rock slopes according to the rock mass classification procedure and the failure probability in the early stage.     

Analysis of lateral rock spreading process initiation with a numerical modelling approach

The first erosional front of the south‐eastern Alps has been affected by several deep‐seated landslides. The movements affected a Jurassic limestone sequence underlain by an upper Trias unit (Keuper) mainly composed of marl and clays. Horst‐ and graben‐like structures, newly formed gravitational faults, outflow and other field evidence suggest that such movements are consistent with lateral rock spreading processes. An example of such processes is the ‘La Marbrière’ slope, where field investigations have revealed that three distinct zones corresponding to three evolutionary stages of movement exist. The question is: What are the structural and mechanical modifications undergone by the slope between those evolution stages? To tackle this question, numerical models based on a 2D cross section of the ‘La Marbrière’ slope have been performed. Results show that, to fit the structural evidence of the precollapse situation, elasto‐plastic behaviour of the Trias Keuper unit is needed. The transition between the precollapse and fresh post‐collapse situations requires a modification of the mechanical behaviour of the Trias Keuper unit to Burger type, resulting in the formation of antithetic and synthetic gravitational faults (producing a graben‐like structure).     

基于黏聚力裂缝模型的反倾层状岩质边坡倾倒破坏模拟

反倾层状岩质边坡的倾倒破坏是一种常见的地质灾害。为探究开挖条件下反倾层状岩质边坡的倾倒破坏机制以及层间剪切强度、岩层厚度因素对破坏特征的影响,利用ABAQUS有限元软件,建立黏聚力裂缝模型（Cohesive Crack Model,CCM）,基于连续-离散方法,经参数标定和对比,建立反倾层状岩质边坡CCM,采用开挖并增重的方式诱发边坡倾倒破坏。数值模拟结果与古水水电站坝前倾倒变形体离心模型试验结果基本一致,验证了CCM的正确性。进一步,基于以上参数及模型,研究了反倾层状岩质边坡的破坏演化过程和应力分布特征,并探讨层间剪切强度对边坡倾倒破坏特征的影响。结果表明:坡体前缘首先发生局部折断,后缘出现明显拉裂缝,反倾岩层由下往上依次折断直至倾倒体中部（一级破裂面）。随后,坡体前缘的表层岩层被挤出,形成二级破裂面,最后一级破裂面扩展至坡体后缘,形成连通宏观的破裂面。最后,二级破裂面扩展至坡体中部,边坡完全倾倒破坏;破裂面基本沿层间法向应力峰值位置连线发育;层间剪切强度对边坡倾倒破坏特征具有显著的影响,随着层间剪切强度的增大,岩层初始折断位置逐渐降低,垮塌范围逐渐减小,破裂面倾角增大;坡体层厚越大,一级破裂面分布越深,垮塌区范围越大,坡体滑动的整体性越强。研究成果可为反倾层状岩质边坡倾倒破坏的分析和监测提供有效计算方法及依据,为此类滑坡灾害的防治提供一定参考。     

基于岩石长期稳定性的工程寿命预估研究

为了从岩石蠕变特性的角度对岩石工程的时效作用进行理论研究,通过对改进的西原蠕变模型进行理论分析,模拟微分方程数值曲线,从而得出与时间相关的蠕变加速度失稳判据;结合蠕变模型第三阶段的非线性特性,采用趋近系数对蠕变稳定阶段进行预测,对于非衰减蠕变破坏,通过破坏倾斜角进行预估。揭示了岩石第三阶段蠕变失稳的机理和规律,为预测岩石工程的失稳破坏及其寿命预估提供新的理论依据。     

Probabilistic and sensitivity analyses of effective geotechnical parameters on rock slope stability: a case study of an urban area in northeast Iran

Despite the development of cities, risk assessment of rock slope stability in urban areas seems not to be growing at the same time. Mashhad is a developed city in northeast of Iran with a population of over 2.4 million. Given the closeness of the southern part of Mashhad to the Binaloud mountain ridge, the stability of the residential complexes that are being constructed in this area is a critical issue. Based on the fundamental roles of discontinuity properties and geo-mechanical parameters of rock mass, in this study we evaluated the most influential parameters of the rock slope stability and the failure probability of the slope near the Negin residential complex built on this ridge. According to the deterministic and probabilistic analyses, the north trench that was excavated for this residential complex could potentially cause plane failure. Moreover, the relationship between effective parameters on instability and their impact on safety factors were determined by sensitivity analysis. Therefore, slope dip, pore water pressure, and joint set dip were highly influential on the safety factor. There was also a nonlinear relationship between different parameters and safety in the studied area. This study presents an approach for risk assessment of rock slope stability in urban areas.     

基于岩体刚度的顺层岩质滑坡破坏特性研究

应用力学手段研究顺层岩质边坡失稳机理以及顺层岩质边坡稳定与其刚度密切相关在该领域获得了较多研究者认可,力学分析也成为顺层岩质边坡稳定研究的重要手段之一,在顺层岩质边坡刚度对其稳定的影响获得广泛的关注同时,却未能有人专门研究其刚度与其破坏特性之间的关系,为此在总结前人研究成果基础上,采用柔度作为其刚度指标,认为顺层岩质边坡破坏力学模型、破坏形态以及临界长度与其柔度大小密切相关,在其柔度小于临界柔度值时,可简化为杆模型,在其柔度值大于其临界柔度值时,根据其实际坡长,可简化为梁或杆模型,并分析了柔度大小与其破坏特征之间的关系,指出溃屈破坏一般只在特定的情况下发生。     

含软弱夹层斜坡地震动力响应过程的边际谱特征研究

地震波的频率特性是地震动的最重要特征之一,斜坡的地震动力响应是地震波各频率组分对斜坡体共同作用的结果。依托于含水平厚软弱夹层斜坡的大型振动台模型试验,着重分析了该斜坡在天然随机波(2008年汶川波)作用下的水平向加速度响应频谱特征。首先,基于Hilbert-Huang频谱变换,对所有原始数据进行了有效的降噪处理,并获得了重构数据的Hilbert边际谱。接着,开展了坡表水平向加速度边际谱在不同高程处和不同激振强度下的变化特征分析,并将频谱特征与时域峰值加速度(PHA)响应和斜坡的宏观变形破坏特征进行对比分析。结果表明:(1)随着高程增加,边际谱幅值也相应增加且谱线出现多个波峰。坡体上部尤其是坡肩是地震作用的敏感部位,随着激振强度增加,加速度波的震动能量从一开始集中在2个频段(即7～11 Hz和15～20 Hz,高频)逐渐向1个频段(7～11 Hz,低频)变化;(2)在激振强度为0.2g～0.5g时,第一卓越频率(最大谱峰值对应的频率)和第二卓越频率(次大谱峰值对应的频率)在数值上呈大幅度、无规律的波动,预示在该震动阶段,坡体结构内部正在经历一个较大的变化(恶化),但未出现宏观变形;(3)时域峰值加速度随高程和激振强度增加的变化规律与最大谱峰值的变化规律较接近,但局部变化受次大谱峰值响应的影响明显;(4)在低频区(5 Hz),在软弱夹层及其周围(相对高程0.25～0.75)出现了明显的响应低值区,且边际谱的形状和数值在该部位呈无规律性变化;(5)斜坡的变形破坏过程明显受坡表而非坡顶变形的控制,其应存在使得一个地震波与坡体相互作用效应最大的共振高程,该高程范围与以第二卓越频率(16 Hz)作为共振频率所估算的高程较为吻合。     

A generalized probabilistic approach for slope analysis

Summary A new probabilistic approach is introduced for slope stability analysis, which is general in types of variable distributions and correlations or dependency between variables, and flexible enough to include any adverse impact analysis for blasting vibrations and groundwater conditions.The material strength within a slope area, given in terms of the internal friction angle (ø) and cohesion (c), is randomized in the bivariate joint probability analysis. To be a completely general engineering method, the new probabilistic approach employs the random variable transformation technique: the Hermite model of the Gaussian transformation function, which transforms the experimental histogram of shear strength parameters to the standard Gaussian distribution (=0, ²=1.0).Because a binormal joint probability is analysed on the true probability region projected on the plane of the Gaussian transformed variables, it is an exact solution of slope stability based on the available sample data. No assumption on the shape of the experimental histogram or independency between two random variables is made as in the current probability methods of slope analysis.     

岩体基本参数对岩质边坡变形的影响

文章利用有限差分程序FLAC,定量化讨论了边坡岩体(软岩)的变形模量、泊松比、密度、粘聚力、内摩擦角、边坡高度等参数对软岩边坡变形的影响。研究表明,边坡位移随变形模量E的增大而减小;泊松比μ的增加,则会引起x方向的位移的增加,y方向的位移减小;而岩体密度对岩石边坡位移的影响甚弱。边坡岩体的粘聚力c对边坡变形的影响程度与岩体的其他参数间存在很大关系。内摩擦角对边坡位移的影响大小,则取决于粘聚力c的取值。此外,随着边坡高度的增加边坡变形则会随之增加。其中x方向位移变化对边坡高度的变化更为敏感;同样,在边坡岩体其他参数不变的情况下,边坡倾角越大,边坡变形也越大。     

Probabilistic block theory analysis for a rock slope at an open pit mine in USA

A new formulation is given to conduct a probabilistic block theory analysis. A new computer code (PBTAC) is developed to perform both deterministic and probabilistic block theory analysis. The variability of the discontinuity orientation and shear strength is incorporated in the probabilistic block theory analysis. Discontinuity orientation is treated as a bivariate random variable including the correlation that exists between the dip angle and dip direction. PBTAC code was applied to perform both deterministic and probabilistic block theory analyses for a part of an open pit mine in USA. Needed geological and geotechnical data for the analyses were obtained from field and laboratory investigations. The variability of the discontinuity orientations resulted in important differences between the probabilistic and deterministic block theory analyses results. The results confirmed that the design value selected for the maximum safe slope angle (MSSA) for a particular region in the open pit mine based on the deterministic block theory analysis can be on the unsafe side. In summary, the results showed clearly the superiority of probabilistic block theory analysis over the deterministic block theory analysis in obtaining additional important information with respect to designing rock slopes. The calculated values agree very well with the existing almost stable bench face angles reported by the mining company.     

A dual-isotope approach to the nitrogen hydrochemistry of an urban aquifer

The potential for exploitation of urban aquifers is partly dependent on understanding the distribution and fate of urban N sources, such as sewage and fertilisers, that can limit the use of groundwater for public supplies. To investigate the application of the dual-isotope approach to understanding the N hydrochemistry of urban groundwater, this paper presents δ¹⁵N–NO₃⁻ and δ¹⁸O–NO₃⁻ data collected from two multi-level piezometers in the Sherwood sandstone aquifer beneath Nottingham in the English Midlands, UK. At one multi-level piezometer (Old Basford), depth sample measurements of δ¹⁵N–NO₃⁻ in the range +9.2 to +11.4 ‰ and δ¹⁸O–NO₃⁻ in the range +8.2 to +10.9‰, together with NO₃⁻ nitrate concentrations from 31.7 to 66.7 mg/l, are evidence for nitrification of sewage-derived inputs. In contrast, at the other multi-level piezometer (the Meadows), isotopically enriched samples (δ¹⁵N–NO₃⁻ in the range +24.3 to +42.2 ‰ and δ¹⁸O–NO₃⁻ in the range +20.5 to +29.4‰) are evidence for denitrification, although the compositional range of δ¹⁵N–NO₃⁻ does not identify the N source without corroborating data. For the Meadows location, a cross-plot of δ¹⁵N–NO₃⁻ versus δ¹⁸O–NO₃⁻ gave an enrichment of the ¹⁵N isotope relative to the ¹⁸O isotope by a factor of 1.9, within the range of 1.3–2.1 reported for denitrification in other studies. This study has shown that the dual-isotope approach provides improved understanding of N sources and fate in the urban environment but further work is required to identify nitrification pathways to provide more confidence in the application and interpretation of δ¹⁸O–NO₃⁻ measurements.     

某水电站进水口高边坡开挖的变形响应研究

针对西南某大型水电站高达近106 m的人工进水口垂直高边坡,通过现场跟踪施工的地质调查工作,系统研究了复杂地质条件和高地应力环境下岩石高边坡大坡比、强开挖所表现的变形响应,揭示了此类边坡变形响应的基本规律及特殊表现。研究表明：高边坡开挖过程中,边坡的变形与开挖过程有较强的同步性。变形主要受开挖卸荷影响,随着开挖的进行,坡体的变形随开挖面的远离表现出总体衰减,最终稳定的响应特征。变形可归纳为3种性质,即浅表松弛型、协调渐变型和回弹错动型,总体以浅表松弛型为主等。     

水下岩质边坡稳定性计算模式的探讨

论文讨论了水下岩质边坡稳定性分析中平面型滑动及其边坡后缘出现拉张裂缝等两种计算模式,着重分析了水下岩质边坡的受力机理,推导了考虑动水的水流速度及不同的滑动面倾角等水下岩质边坡稳定性评价公式,得到了岩质边坡稳定系数与水流速度的关系曲线和岩质边坡稳定系数与滑动面夹角的关系曲线.通过实例计算,讨论了水下岩质边坡后缘出现拉张裂缝后稳定性评价的主要影响因素及其变化规律.当考虑水流速度对边坡的作用时,边坡的稳定性明显下降.     

岩质边坡稳定性评价的尖点突变理论模型

考虑岩质边坡后缘张裂隙中的孔隙水压力及地下水对软弱结构面的物理化学作用,将软弱结构面分为应变硬化区和应变软化区,建立单平面滑动破坏的岩质边坡力学模型,引入尖点突变理论,建立尖点突变模型,推导岩质边坡突变失稳的充要力学条件判据,并重新推导极限平衡法的临界稳定系数。结果表明,分叉集方程等于0为岩质边坡突变失稳充要力学条件判据;由于滑面处含水量不同,稳定系数小于1,边坡不一定会发生失稳;稳定系数大于1,边坡也不一定稳定。     

Towards an understanding of the southern Appalachian Piedmont crustal transition—A multidisciplinary approach

The Piedmont of the southern Appalachians is characterized by significant geophysical and geological anomalies which indicate there is a major crustal transition. Multiple hypotheses, including a suture zone and a subducted continental margin, have been presented to explain the variations. Although crustal seismic reflection data have provided significant constraints, there are ambiguities inherent in the interpretation of such data. The ambiguities can be reduced by careful consideration of related geophysical and geological observations. Although the importance of correlating crustal reflection data with known geologic features by tracing reflections to drill holes or to the surface cannot be overestimated, only rarely are such correlations possible. In almost all interpretations of crustal reflection structure it is necessary to constrain the model with methods such as seismic refraction, gravity, magnetics, conductivity, and surface geology (including palinspastic reconstructions). When information from these techniques is incorporated into interpretations of the Piedmont crustal structure, the model which appears to be most consistent with the observations is one in which the upper crust of the Piedmont is decoupled from the lower crust, and in which the lower crust thins eastward. The lower crust may be a subducted Precambrian continental margin and its associated transition toward thinner, basinal crust.     

基于A^＊算法的边坡稳定分析方法

岩质边坡的失稳大都是沿各软弱结构面而发生的,其滑动面往往是软弱结构面的组合,呈阶梯状.岩石边坡中存在大量的随机结构面,从中找出抗剪力最小的滑裂面是边坡工程中的一个研究方向.在岩体结构面调查统计的基础上,用随机网络模拟再现结构面的空间分布,在此基础上应用A*算法,搜索出岩石边坡的临界滑裂面,并对临界滑裂面上的边坡体任意斜条分,与Sarma分析方法相结合,形成一种改进的分析岩石边坡稳定性的方法—— Sarma-A*分析法,通过工程实例验证该方法的合理性.     

斜坡上异重流的三维数值模拟

针对异重流的流动特征,建立了适用于具有各向异性浮力紊动特征的三维异重流运动的数学模型,并模拟了异重流在15°斜坡底面上的潜行过程。计算结果准确地模拟了异重流的运动特征和形态,其前锋的潜行速度与实验结果相当吻合。该模型采用非结构同位网格上的SIMPLEC算法能适应复杂边界和地形,可应用于自然界实际环境中异重流的演进计算。     

边坡可靠度分析的一种新的优化求解方法

介绍了Low & Tang提出的一种新的可靠度优化求解方法,并将之用于边坡可靠度分析中：该方法适用于任何概率分布的相关变量,不必计算当量正态均值和方差、相关变量独立变换,直接在变量的原始空间内搜索边坡的最小可靠指标和概率临界滑面,可采用任何合适的约束优化方法进行求解,方法清晰简洁。边坡可靠度分析常用的滑面有2个：最小安全系数（变量均值处）对应的确定性临界滑面和最小可靠指标对应的概率临界滑面,但这2个滑面在有些情况下差别较大,Hassan & Wolff提出了一种简化方法可以方便地获得概率临界滑面,但由于方法简单,受到质疑。通过一系列算例分析,优化求解方法得到的概率临界滑面和Hassan & Wolff的简化方法滑面非常接近,显示了简化方法的有效性,值得在工程实践中推广。