Evaluation of undrained shear strength of surficial marine clays using ball penetration-based CFD modelling

Acta Geotechnica - The undrained shear strength of surficial marine clays is a significant parameter for engineering construction and geological disaster assessment. The full-flow penetration test...     

Mechanisms of pelleting flocculation

Basically speaking, flocculation and coagulation should be theoretically treated as a many-body problem. However, such potential energy theories of coagulation as the DLVO theory have been developed as a two-body problem, i.e., interaction between two plates or two particles in an infinite medium. The concept volume fraction of the constituent particles in the floc, i.e., voidage fraction in the floc is excluded from these theories and, therefore, the traditional theories are not applicable to the phenomenon of “pelleting flocculation”.In an effort to formulate a theory of flocculation that leads to pellet-like flocs, three possible mechanisms of flocculation process are involved, i.e., (1) perikinetic flocculation, (2) orthokinetic flocculation, and (3) an additional process of mechanical syneresis. A few hypotheses are also presented, which may become the prelude to a subsequent flocculation theory.     

上海浅部黏土渗透系数及其各向异性

为研究上海浅部黏土的渗透系数及其各向异性,沿水平及竖直方向对上海浅部主要黏土层进行了不同压力下的固结试验,联合使用时间平方根法和时间对数法获取了试样的渗透系数,探讨了渗透系数与孔隙比及渗流方向之间的关系,并通过电镜扫描,从微观角度分析了水平和竖直方向渗透系数存在差异的原因。研究结果表明：上海浅部主要黏土层的渗透系数均随着孔隙比的增加而增大。对于单组试验来说,渗透系数k与孔隙比e在e lgk坐标系中呈现很好的线性关系,且渗透变化指数Ck大致呈现Ck = 0.5e0的规律;但对于整体试验而言,渗透系数与孔隙比在e lgk坐标系中大致呈现出曲线关系。通过扫描电镜观察,揭示了沉积形成的絮状微观结构是竖直和水平渗透系数差异较小的主要原因。     

Multi-dimensional chemo-osmotic consolidation of clays

A model of chemo-osmotic consolidation of clays in multi-dimensional domains is presented, with volumetric strains induced by both changes in the chemistry and osmotically driven pore water flow considered. Three fully coupled governing equations considering force equilibrium, pore water transport and chemical transport are presented and solved using the transient finite element method. The proposed approach is verified via consideration of chemo-osmotic consolidation of a compacted clay landfill liner and then applied to investigation of a hypothetical case with a local leachate leak in the compacted clay liner. An assessment of the impact of the two-dimensional nature of the system is made. The consolidation process is found to be dominated by osmotic consolidation in the early stages and subsequently by chemical consolidation. It is found that the surface settlement and the leachate concentration in the compacted clay liner may be highly overestimated by a one-dimensional analysis. Moreover, the peak negative excess pore pressure predicted by the two-dimensional solution remains in a shallow region under the leak while in the one-dimensional solution it moves progressively downwards.     

Time-dependent behaviour of deep clays

The time-dependent behaviour of deep saturated clays is related both to the effects of hydraulic diffusion and of viscosity. In this paper, we present first, by means of an experimental approach, the main features of the mechanical properties of deep clays. Then, we study the effects of these specific behaviours on the time-dependent behaviour of underground structures. We present theoretical and numerical investigations of the effects of pore pressure diffusion resulting from a tunnel excavation in a poroplastic or poroviscoplastic medium. Finite-element calculations show that the time-dependent convergence of the tunnel wall is non negligible. Then, we focus on the behaviour of a cylindrical thermal source buried in a deep clay.

Coupling effects between thermal, hydraulic and mechanical behaviours are very important in soft and low permeable deep clays (saturated compressible clays with high porosity). We show in particular that the displacements and the stresses are very sensitive to the constitutive model. Irreversible behaviour may be traduced by appearance of residual stresses within the rockmass.     

Shear resistance of fissured Neogene clays

Two types of fissured Neogene clays (SM and WB) were tested in the laboratory using undisturbed and reconstituted specimens. Although of similar age, the clays differ in their geological history: SM clays were deposited in a marine environment, WB are lacustrine clays with a complex tectonic history.

The index properties of both clays are similar and, accordingly, their strength parameters are mutually close. Test results of the more compact and less wet clay (WB) are affected by the sampling and trimming procedures, especially for 38 mm diameter specimens.

Although the behaviour is similar, the origin of fissures is different. For the SM clays, weathering is the main cause and fissuring reaches a depth of about 20 m. WB clays are dissected by macro- and microfissures originating as the result of tectonic processes and volumetric changes (effect of the coal formation underneath the investigated massif).

Cementation of some samples was found and the transition from clays through cemented clays to claystones (soft rocks) is speculated.     

Osmotic suction of highly plastic clays

This paper presents a study on osmotic suction of compacted highly plastic clays. Two different types of bentonite (i.e. Calcigel and a bentonite from India called herein as Indian bentonite) were used. Squeezing technique was utilized to obtain soil pore-water of the specimen. Using relationship between electric conductivity and osmotic pressure of salt solution, osmotic suction of soil pore-water was obtained. Additional tests (i.e. total and matric suction using filter paper method and swelling pressure using constant volume swelling pressure test) were performed. The results show that osmotic pressure of soil pore-water obtained decreases by increasing squeezing pressure. Based on experimental result, osmotic suction of the specimen is osmotic pressure of the first drop of extracted soil pore-water. An empirical method was suggested to determine the squeezing pressure in squeezing technique. In addition, roles of osmotic suction in thermo-hydro-mechanical behavior of highly plastic clays were presented and discussed in the paper.     

A general modelling of expansive and non-expansive clays

This paper presents an elastoplastic model for saturated expansive and non-expansive clays. The original feature of this model is that a plastic mechanism is introduced during unloading to take into account the irreversible swelling of the macroporosities. These strains are induced by the repulsive stresses which are unbalanced at the scale of the microporosities. Thus two yield surfaces are activated: a classical contact yield surface (F_C) similar to an associated modified Cam-clay approach and a swelling yield surface (F_R−A) based on the non-associated plasticity. The formulation considers that for the normally consolidated stress states, the strains are mainly produced by an increase of the contact stresses. For the overconsolidated stress states, the repulsive stresses balance the external stresses. The rheological parameters are easily determined from the results of either triaxial or oedometer tests. The model is then used in a finite element program, using the classical concepts of plasticity, especially for the loading–unloading criterion based on the sign of the plasticity multiplier. Simulations of the convergence of a gallery (under an earth retaining structure) sunk at great depth in Boom clay are presented. The results are compared with those obtained with the Cam-clay model. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mechanisms of landslides in over-consolidated clays and flysch

In this report, we present the situation in Slovenia, Europe with regard to natural hazards, emphasizing land-sliding problems. Furthermore, we shortly present the University of Ljubljana and the Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering as the new member of the ICL that was selected to be the World Center of Excellence on Landslide Risk Reduction for the period of 2008–2013 with the project entitled “Mechanisms of landslides in over-consolidated clays and flysch” in the Activity scale and targeted region as “National.” Some preliminary results of this project are shortly presented at the end.     

The flocculation and de-watering of kimberlite clay slimes

The crushing of kimberlite at certain diamond mines produces a very persistent “slime” which is exceptionally difficult to filter or de-water. The colloidally stable component has been identified as a swelling clay, saponite, which carries a strong negative charge in alkaline media.Methods of coagulating or flocculating these slimes have been investigated; the most convenient method found was the combined use of magnesium sulphate and an anionic polyacrylamide (A-130 from B.T.I. Chemicals Ltd.). Optimal results were obtained only in a narrow range of conditions but with these it was possible to build flocs of any required size.The permeability and de-watering of coagulated or flocculated kimberlite slimes has been investigated with a hydraulic apparatus and in the capillary suction time (c.s.t.) apparatus. Typically compressible filter-cakes are obtained, their character varying greatly with the flocculation conditions.     

结构性黏土的压缩变形特性

海相软黏土的结构性对土体的变形与强度特性有着重要的影响,这种影响与爆炸挤淤置换法处理软基的置换深度直接相关,是海堤基础沉降与稳定性分析的不确定因素。为了探究结构性对海堤地基沉降的影响,并对海相软黏土的压缩特性进行定量分析,建立结构性黏土的压缩变形模型,同时给出模型参数的确定方法。利用文献中的试验数据对模型进行了验证,结果表明模型不仅适用于一维应力状态下的变形分析,能够描述三轴应力状态下结构性黏土的压缩特性。利用所建模型对浙江漩门地区海相软黏土的压缩特性进行模拟,分析表明,模型能较好地考虑结构性对该地区软黏土压缩变形的影响,为该地区海堤沉降的预测提供量化分析的手段,有助于加强结构性黏土地区海堤地基设计与施工的理论基础。     

Consolidation behaviour of finely laminated clays

Thin highly permeable laminations have a significant influence on the rate of consolidation of many natural clays. Horne [1] presented analytical solutions for a particular type of problem. The range of solutions has been extended by the authors, who have used the more general finite element technique to solve consolidation problems of finely laminated clays under various geometry, load, and boundary conditions. Solutions are presented in graphical form to enable engineers to predict the rate of settlement for strip loads imposed on the surface of laminated clays. The effect of the laminations on the pore water pressure distribution, and the significant difference between a laminated (composite) material and an anisotropic material, are examined.     

考虑各向异性的软黏土扰动状态本构模型

以大量试验结果为依据,运用物理意义明确、获取简便快捷、经济实用的土电阻率结构指标进行软黏土扰动变量的表征和测定。以三轴试验与电阻率测试结果为基础,进行了扰动函数的构建。在软黏土扰动状态描述中,引入旋转硬化因子,用以考虑应力诱发各向异性,进而构建了考虑各向异性的软黏土扰动状态概念本构模型。模型从一定程度上克服了传统扰动变量获取方法的弊端,克服了传统借用数学演绎手段建立扰动函数的不足,提高了模型应用的适用性。在模型构建中,融入初始应力各向异性的影响,从而使模型能更好地反映软土实际工程情况。三轴排水剪切试验验证结果表明,该模型可较好反映软黏土受荷下的结构变化情况和受力特性。     

Measurement of flow properties of expansive clays

The paper deals with the determination of the flow properties of expansive and unsaturated clays under different conditions of stress. By choosing the moisture content as the dependent variable, the well known non-linear diffusin equation is derived. Numerical solutions using a finite element program are presented, assuming a linear relationship between the moisture diffusivity and the concentration (the relative moisture content). These solutions are interpreted and a procedure is proposed to derive the flow properties of the clay from the sorption curves. Results of tests are presented and used to illustrate the procedure. It is found that the lower the stress applied, the smaller the initial moisture diffusivity and the stronger the dependence of the moisture diffusivity upon the concentration.     

Behavior of some clays on drying and wetting paths

This paper presents an experimental study carried out on some clayey soils of Tlemcen region situated in the North West of Algeria. The characterization of the volumetric behavior under the effect of suction is studied on drying–wetting paths which highlight the correspondence between void ratio, degree of saturation, and water content versus suction. The initial conditions of studied material are in slurry form and compacted at different initial water contents. For the slurry form, correlations are derived to predict parameters characterizing the drying path.     

An ISA-plasticity-based model for viscous and non-viscous clays

The ISA-plasticity is a mathematical platform which allows to propose constitutive models for soils under a wide range of strain amplitudes. This formulation is based on a state variable, called the intergranular strain, which is related to the strain recent history. The location of the intergranular strain can be related to the strain amplitude, information which is used to improve the model for the simulation of cyclic loading. The present work proposes an ISA-plasticity-based model for the simulation of saturated clays and features the incorporation of a viscous strain rate to enable the simulation of the strain rate dependency. The work explains some aspects of the ISA-plasticity and adapts its formulation for clays. At the beginning, the formulation of the model is explained. Subsequently, some comments about its numerical implementation and parameters determination are given. Finally, some simulations are performed to evaluate the model performance with two different clays, namely a Kaolin clay and the Lower Rhine clay. The simulations include monotonic and cyclic tests under oedometric and triaxial conditions. Some of these experiments include the variation of the strain rate to evaluate the viscous component of the proposed model.     

Large deformation elastic electro-osmosis consolidation of clays

This paper presents the theoretical background of an elastic electro-osmosis consolidation model for saturated soils experiencing large strains, which considers volumetric strains induced by changes in both the hydraulic and electric driven pore water flows. Three fully coupled governing equations, considering the soil mechanical behaviour, pore water transport and electrical field, and their numerical implementation within an updated Lagrangian finite element formulation, are presented. The proposed model is first verified against a classical one-dimensional analytical solution for electro-osmosis consolidation to demonstrate its accuracy and efficiency. Then, various numerical examples are investigated to study the deformation characteristics and time dependent evolution of excess pore pressure. Finally, the importance of considering large strains in a consistent and proper way is demonstrated, and differences compared to models based on small strain theory are highlighted.     

Physico/chemical stability of smectite clays

There is convincing evidence from field data that smectite clay undergoes conversion primarily to illite and chlorite if it is fully water-saturated and heated. The conversion may take place through mixed-layer formation with increasing illite/smectite ratio at higher temperatures and pressures. This process requires dehydration of the interlamellar space, for which either an external pressure or drying are needed. An alternative mechanism that takes place without dehydration, is dissolution of smectite and neoformation of illite. Both processes imply reorganization of the smectite crystal lattice for which the activation energy is fairly high, meaning that the conversion is negligible at temperatures lower than about 60°C. At elevated temperatures the conversion rate is controlled by the access to potassium for either mechanism.

An ongoing detailed investigation of this subject has led to a tentative model for the smectite-to-illite conversion in natural sediments and in canister-embedding clay in high-level radioactive waste (HLW) repositories.