Structure and development of the spotless flare on March 16, 1981

The morphological peculiarities of the 1N (N09W22) two-ribbon spotless flare on March 16, 1981, as well as its connection with a magnetic field, have been considered. In contrast to major flares of the active region, this spotless flare is characterized by a large-scale development process, a large distance from the magnetic neutral line, and the absence of the spread of the ribbons. The development of the flare had four periods. At the beginning of each period, a sharp increase in the brightness of the flare was observed along with a simultaneous decrease in the area of the flare ribbons. The areas of the ribbons varied synchronously during all of the periods. However, the situation changed abruptly near the maximum: the area of one of the ribbons increased, whereas the area of the other ribbon decreased. In our opinion, this behavior is a manifestation of real physical processes in the flare source and was a precursor of the beginning of the flare decay. The magnetic field and its topology, as well as the cellular structure of the chromosphere, were primarily responsible for the evolution of the flare. Almost all of the mottles and bright parts of the flare were localized in the immediate vicinity of magnetic hills with field intensities from 80 to 250 G. The main structural elements of the flare have been identified. A phenomenon called the tunnel effect has been revealed: the flare progresses inside a tunnel formed by the system of dark arch structures (filaments). The results indicate that spotless flares apparently constitute a specific class of flare phenomena and the study of them is of great interest for understanding of the origin of solar flares.     

Relation between the active region magnetic field and solar flares

A weak active region (NOAA 11158) appeared on the solar disk near the eastern limb. This region increased rapidly and, having reached the magnetic flux higher than 10²² Mx, produced an X-class flare. Only weak field variations at individual points were observed during the flare. An analysis of data with a resolution of 45 s did not indicate any characteristic features in the photospheric field dynamics during the flare. When the flux became higher than 3 × 10²² Mx, active region NOAA 10720 produced six X-class flares. The field remained quiet during these flares. An increase in the magnetic flux above ～10²² Mx is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for the appearance of powerful flares. Simple active regions do not produce flares. A flare originates only when the field distribution in an active region is complex and lines of polarity inversion have a complex shape. Singular lines of the magnetic field can exist only above such active regions. The current sheets, in the magnetic field of which the solar flare energy is accumulated, originate in the vicinity of these lines.     

Microwave radiation of solar active regions before X flares according to the RATAN-600 observations in 2011

The evolution of the microwave radiation from four active regions, where strong X-ray flares (X-class, GOES) occurred in 2011, has been studied. Daily multiwavelength RATAN-600 radio observations of the Sun in the 1.6–8.0 cm range have been used. It has been indicated that the radiosource above the photospheric magnetic field neutral line (above the region with the maximal convergence of the fields opposite in sign) becomes predominant in the structure of the active region microwave radiation one to two days before a powerful flare as in the eruptive events previously studied with RATAN-600. The appearance of such a radiosource possibly reflects the current sheet formation in the corona above the active region. The energy necessary for a flare is stored in the magnetic field of active region, which can be considered as a factor for predicting a powerful flare.     

Magnetic field dynamics based on SOHO/MDI data in the region of flares related to halo coronal mass ejections

Variations in the photospheric magnetic field in the region of solar flares, related to halo coronal mass ejections (HCMEs) with velocities V > 1500, 1000 < V < 1500, and V < 650 km/s, have been studied based on SOHO/MDI data. Using data with a time resolution of 96 min, it has been indicated that on average the ??B _L?? and ??|B _L|?? field characteristics increase nonmonotonically during 1?C1.5 days before a flare and decrease during 0.5?C1 days after a flare for groups of ejections with V > 1000 km/s for all considered HCME groups. Angle brackets designate averaging of the measured B _L magnetic field component and its magnitude |B _L| within an area with specified dimensions and the center coincident with the projection onto the region where the flare center field is measured. It has been established that a solar flare related to an HCME originates when the ??B _L?? and ??|B _L|?? values are larger than the boundary values in the flare region. Based on 1-min data, it has been found for several HCMEs with V > 1500 km/s that the beginning of powerful flares related to ejections is accompanied by rapid impulsive or stepped variations in ??B _L?? and ??|B _L|?? near the center of a flare with a size of approximately 4.5°. It has been established that the HCME velocity positively correlates with the |??B _L??| value at the flare onset.     

Modeling the responses of the middle latitude ionosphere to solar flares

In this paper, we investigate the solar flare effects of the ionosphere at middle latitude with a one-dimensional ionosphere theoretical model. The measurements of solar irradiance from the SOHO/Solar EUV Monitor (SEM) and GOES satellites have been used to construct a simple time-dependent solar flare spectrum model, which serves as the irradiance spectrum during solar flares. The model calculations show that the ionospheric responses to solar flares are largely related to the solar zenith angle. During the daytime most of the relative increases in electron density occur at an altitude lower than 300 km, with a peak at about 115 km, whereas around sunrise and sunset the strongest ionospheric responses occur at much higher altitudes (e.g. 210 km for a summer flare). The ionospheric responses to flares in equinox and winter show an obvious asymmetry to local midday with a relative increase in total electron content (TEC) in the morning larger than that in the afternoon. The flare-induced TEC enhancement increases slowly around sunrise and reaches a peak at about 60 min after the flare onset.     

Variations in ionospheric parameters during solar flares

Results of studying the ionospheric response to solar flares, obtained based on the incoherent scatter radar observations of the GPS signals and as a result of the model simulations, are presented. The method, based on the effect of partial “shadowing” of the atmosphere by the globe, has been used to analyze the GPS data. This method made it possible to estimate the value of a change in the electron content in the upper ionosphere during the solar flare of July 14, 2000. It has been shown that a flare can cause a decrease in the electron content at heights of the upper ionosphere (h > 300 km) according to the GPS data. Similar effects in the formation of a negative disturbance in the ionospheric F region were also observed during the solar flares of May 21 and 23, 1967, at the Arecibo incoherent scatter radar. The mechanism by which negative disturbances are formed in the upper ionosphere during solar flares has been studied based on the theoretical model of the ionosphere-plasmasphere coupling. It has been shown that an intense ejection of O⁺ ions into the above located plasmasphere under the action of a sharp increase in the ion production rate and the thermal expansion of the ionospheric plasma cause the formation of a negative disturbance in the electron concentration in the upper ionosphere.     

The spatial relationship between active regions and coronal holes and the occurrence of intense geomagnetic storms throughout the solar activity cycle

We study the annual frequency of occurrence of intense geomagnetic storms (Dst < –100 nT) throughout the solar activity cycle for the last three cycles and find that it shows different structures. In cycles 20 and 22 it peaks during the ascending phase, near sunspot maximum. During cycle 21, however, there is one peak in the ascending phase and a second, higher, peak in the descending phase separated by a minimum of storm occurrence during 1980, the sunspot maximum. We compare the solar cycle distribution of storms with the corresponding evolution of coronal mass ejections and flares. We find that, as the frequency of occurrence of coronal mass ejections seems to follow very closely the evolution of the sunspot number, it does not reproduce the storm profiles. The temporal distribution of flares varies from that of sunspots and is more in agreement with the distribution of intense geomagnetic storms, but flares show a maximum at every sunspot maximum and cannot then explain the small number of intense storms in 1980. In a previous study we demonstrated that, in most cases, the occurrence of intense geomagnetic storms is associated with a flaring event in an active region located near a coronal hole. In this work we study the spatial relationship between active regions and coronal holes for solar cycles 21 and 22 and find that it also shows different temporal evolution in each cycle in accordance with the occurrence of strong geomagnetic storms; although there were many active regions during 1980, most of the time they were far from coronal holes. We analyse in detail the situation for the intense geomagnetic storms in 1980 and show that, in every case, they were associated with a flare in one of the few active regions adjacent to a coronal hole.     

Magnetic reconnection in solar flares

Abstract

The magnetic energy stored in the corona is the only plausible source for the energy released during large solar flares. During the last 20 years most theoretical work has concentrated on models which store magnetic energy in the corona in the form of electrical currents, and a major goal of present day research is to understand how these currents are created, and then later dissipated during a flare. Another important goal is to find a flare model which can eject magnetic flux into interplanetary space. Although many flares do not eject magnetic flux, those which do are of special importance for solar-terrestrial relations since the ejected flux can have dramatic effects if it hits the Earth's magnetosphere. Three flare models which have been extensively investigated are the emerging-flux model, the sheared-arcade model, and the magnetic-flux-rope model. All of these models can store and release magnetic energy efficiently provided that rapid magnetic reconnection occurs. However, only the magnetic-flux-rope model appears to provide a plausible mechanism for ejecting magnetic flux into interplanetary space.     

地磁钩扰的全球响应特征研究与初步统计结果

地磁钩扰是太阳耀斑效应的直观表现之一,其研究有助于深入理解太阳爆发对地球空间环境的影响过程,并能为空间天气建模和预报提供科学依据.本文利用山东大学威海地磁台和Intermagnet地磁链与子午工程的地磁观测数据,联合GOES卫星及数字测高仪等的数据,研究了一个由M5.6级太阳耀斑引发的地磁钩扰事件的全球响应特征.研究发现：地磁钩扰特征呈现出南北半球与午前/午后的差异,且地磁响应相对于太阳耀斑存在约3 min的滞后现象,而夜侧无明显扰动;利用位于日侧的50余个地磁台站的数据统计分析后发现地磁钩扰幅度呈现正态分布,且在当地时正午附近达到峰值;利用地磁数据反演出钩扰发生时电离层的电流体系S_s和宁静日电流S_q,并用该电流体系解释了此事件中地磁数据的变化特征.另外,本文初步统计了1996-2015年的地磁钩扰事件数以及相关的太阳耀斑事件数,分析后发现X级耀斑引发地磁钩扰的可能性最大,达42%,由M级耀斑引发的地磁钩扰事件数最多,A、B、C级等小耀斑引发地磁钩扰的可能性很小.     

Some studies on low-frequency signal in relation to X-ray flares and climatic conditions

The statistical behaviour of the sudden enhancement in signal strength (SES) in relation to solar X-ray flares has been studied for the near east-west propagation of 40 kHz radio waves from Sanwa (36°11’N; 139°51’E) in Japan to Calcutta (22°34’N; 88°24’E) over a long distance path of 5100 km for a period of two years. The period has been divided into four phases - P1, P2, P3 and P4, according to the position of the overhead sun. The change in signal strength during X-ray flares is dependent on the solar zenith angle and climatic conditions. The statistical modal values of the time lag of the SES peak with respect to that solar X-ray flare is found to increase as solar zenith angle increases. The relative rates of increase and decrease of the signal strength (RRISS and RRDSS respectively) have been evaluated for a number of SES which are related to large X-ray flares. Their characteristics have also been investigated. The modal values of the relaxation time have been found to be highly correlated with climatic conditions like temperature and humidity of the propagation path.     

Flare forecasting based on sunspot-groups characteristics

Our comprehension of solar flares is still lacking in many aspects and the possibility of observing active regions during the first phases of flare occurrence is limited by our capability of doing accurate flare forecasting. In order to give a contribution to this aspect, we focused our attention on the characteristics that must be fulfilled by sunspot-groups in order to be flare-productive. We addressed this problem using a statistical approach: first, we analyzed sunspot-groups parameters (i.e., Zürich class, magnetic configuration, area, morphology of the penumbra) and evolution; then, we performed a flare forecasting campaign, based on the results obtained in the first phase and on real-time observations. The results obtained by comparing the flare forecasting probability with the number of flares that have actually occurred are quite encouraging; we plan to improve this procedure by including a bigger statistical sampling.     

The response of TEC at quasi-conjugate point GPS stations during solar flares

Global Positioning System (GPS) derived total electron content (TEC) measurements were analyzed to investigate the ionospheric response during the X-class solar flare event that occurred on 5-6 December 2006 at geomagnetic conjugate stations: Syowa, Antarctica (SYOG) (GC: 69.00°S, 39.58°E; CGM: 66.08°S, 71.65°E) and árholt, Iceland (ARHO) (GC: 66.19°N, 342.89°E; CGM: 66.37°N, 71.48°E). Bernese GPS software was used to derive the TEC maps for both stations. The focus of this study is to determine the symmetry or asymmetry of TEC values which is an important parameter in the ionosphere at conjugate stations during these solar flare events. The results showed that during the first flares on 5 December, effects were more pronounced at SYOG than at ARHO. However, on 6 December, the TEC at ARHO showed a sudden spike during the flare with a different TEC variation at SYOG.     

Analysis of the events that occurred on July 30, 2005, according to ground-based observations in the Ca II 8498 ? line and on board spacecraft

The observations of active region (AR) NOAA 10792 in the Ca II 8498 ? line with an ATB-1 solar telescope at the Sternberg State Astronomical Institute, Moscow State University (SSAI MSU) on July 30, 2005, are illustrated, and the events are analyzed using the data obtained on spacecraft. Three flares and accompanying coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are considered. It has been indicated that the beginning of the first compact CME lagged behind the flare onset by 3 min. Plasma ascended with acceleration that reached 0.4 km/s² at the flare maximum. The matter was also apparently accelerated after the flare maximum, since an ejection could only appear at the edge of the occulting C 2 LASCO coronograph disk at 0557 UT when acceleration is about 0.5 km/s². The second CME (of the halo type) leaded the beginning of the corresponding flare.     

太阳质子事件、双带耀斑及日冕物质抛射

本文统计了第２２ 太阳活动周期间（１９９１ ～１９９５ 年） 发生的２５ 个太阳质子事件与太阳耀斑及日冕物质抛射（ＣＭＥ） 事件的关系　　统计结果表明, 所有的太阳质子事件都与耀斑发生相关, 除２ 个质子事件（１９９４１０２０ 和１９９５１０２０ 日发生的太阳质子事件） 与ＣＭＥ发生无关, 其余质子事件也都与ＣＭＥ 相关　　值得注意的是, 与质子事件相关的耀斑有１６ 个是双带耀斑, 其中包括与ＣＭＥ无关的２ 个事件的耀斑, 占总数的６４ ％ 　　上述统计结果证实了无论是太阳耀斑, 还是物质抛射, 它们对太阳质子事件的发生同样起着非常重要的作用     

耀斑的短期生物效应

为研究太阳耀斑的短期生物效应,统计分析了198-199年中16万婴儿出生日与光学耀斑的关系. 结果表明,婴儿出生数的变化与耀斑辐射的能量,以及能量到达地球的时间有关. 太阳活动较平稳年白天爆发的各级耀斑的当天都对应着一个平均出生数高峰,而且耀斑的亮度和面积越大,对应的出生峰值越大. 2B耀斑当天平均出生数超过前后21d总均值的13.6髎,具有p＜0.001的统计高度显著性水平. 这些出生高峰与耀斑的电磁和高能辐射有关. 2B、2N和1B三类耀斑后的第2-4d还有一个出生峰,它们与耀斑引发的地球物理变化的时间符合.     

Radio-heliographic diagnostics of the potential flare productivity of active regions

As deduced from the data with high spatial resolution obtained at the radio heliographs of the Siberian Solar Radio Telescope (SSRT, 5.7 GHz) and the Nobeyama radio heliograph (NoRH, 17 GHz), radio brightness centers in the distribution of the Stokes parameter I are shifted relative to the distribution of the parameter V 1–2 days before an intense flare. It has been shown that this phenomenon can be related to the behavior of quasi-stationary sources over the inversion line of the radial component of the magnetic field (neutral-line associated sources (NLSs)). These sources have a brightness temperature up to 106 K and a circular polarization up to 90%. The origination of NLSs is associated with the outflow of a new magnetic flux into the atmosphere of an active region that is a classical factor of the flare activity. Therefore, an NLS is a precursor of power solar flares and can be used as a forecast factor. Owing to the high resolution of the SSRT, the deviation of the observed polarization distribution of microwave radiation of the active region from the normal one within the solar disk zone containing the active region can be used as a precursor of the preflare state of the active region. As a result, the single-frequency Tanaka-Enome criterion is modified. The use of the data from two radio heliographs (SSRT and NoRH) allows us to propose a two-frequency criterion of normal longitudinal zones that is more efficient for short-term forecasting of solar flares. Preflare features associated with the displacement of brightness centers in I and V, which is manifested as the transformation of NLSs into spot sources, are fine attributes added to forecast according to the two-frequency criterion. This is illustrated by an example of active region 10930, which produced power proton flares on December 6 and 13, 2006.     

Powerful nonstationary processes on the sun: Spatio-temporal structure and efficient particle acceleration

Data on high-energy processes on the Sun are summarized. We refine the classification of flares and substantiate the view that a coronal mass ejection and a flare proper are manifestations of the same common process, at least for the most powerful events. Next, we analyze data on the acceleration of electrons (RHESSI, Mars Odyssey) and protons. The existence of two peaks of hard X-ray emission spaced 10–20 min apart and the evolution of its spectra are shown to be indicative of two acceleration episodes. We have analyzed the spectra of 172 proton increases identified with the ratio of the proton fluxes at energies above 10 and 100 MeV near the Earth. These spectra turn out to be virtually the same for most of the large flares under favorable conditions for the escape of particles from the corona and their propagation in the interplanetary space. This is an argument for the invariance of the main features of efficient particle acceleration in powerful events. This process takes place at the explosive phase of a flare and its source is located low, immediately above the chromosphere, in the region adjacent to sunspots. There is a reason to believe that, in this case, a rapid simultaneous acceleration of electrons and protons takes place with the capture of some fraction of the particles into magnetic traps. However, there exist a few events in which an additional number of protons with energies as high as 10–30 MeV escape from the corona at the post-eruptive phase of flare development. Analysis of these cases with softer particle spectra more likely suggests an additional particle acceleration at coronal heights (about 30 000 km) than the facilitation of particle escape from magnetic traps. We estimate the contribution from the proton flux at an energy above 10 MeV arising at the post-eruptive phase of a flare to the total particle flux at the maximum of a proton increase and discuss possible particle acceleration mechanisms at significant coronal heights.     

Sympathetic flaring with BATSE,GOES, and EIT data

Sympathetic flaring is defined as the initiation of a solar flare as a result of a transient phenomenon occurring elsewhere on the Sun. Discovery of sympathetic flaring or lack thereof, may lead to a greater understanding of the physics of flare initiation. Knowledge of a mechanism for initiating solar flares would also aid in predicting at least some solar flares. Two studies of sympathetic flaring are presented in this paper. The first part of the paper presents a test for sympathetic flaring in flares observed with the Burst and Transient Source Experiment. A Monte Carlo simulation is used to compare the distribution of solar X-ray flares in time to that expected from a time-varying, Poisson distribution. No evidence for sympathetic flaring is found, though it cannot be ruled out. The X-ray flare data also do not allow discovery of sympathetic flares occurring within 2 min of the initial flare. Because the observations do allow for at least some flares to occur sympathetically, the second part of the paper examines one possible mechanism for initiating flares. The mechanism examined is large-scale coronal transients observed by the SOHO/Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope: EIT waves. A comparison of the rate of flaring in the interval prior to an EIT wave to the rate of flaring while the wave traverses the solar disk shows no increase in the number of flares due to the EIT wave.     

Features of Microwave Radiation and Magnetographic Characteristics of Solar Active Region NOAA 12242 Before the X1.8 Flare on December 20, 2014

This paper continues the cycle of authors’ works on the detection of precursors of large flares (M5 and higher classes) in active regions (ARs) of the Sun by their microwave radiation and magnetographic characteristics. Generalization of the detected precursors of strong flares can be used to develop methods for their prediction. This paper presents an analysis of the development of NOAA AR 12242, in which an X1.8 flare occurred on December 20, 2014. The analysis is based on regular multiazimuth and multiwavelength observations with the RATAN-600 radio telescope in the range 1.65–10 cm with intensity and circular polarization analysis and data from the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). It was found that a new component appeared in the AR microwave radiation two days before the X-flare. It became dominant in the AR the day before the flare and significantly decreased after the flare. The use of multiazimuth observations from RATAN-600 and observations at 1.76 cm from the Nobeyama Radioheliograph made it possible to identify the radio source that appeared before the X-flare with the site of the closest convergence of opposite polarity fields near the neutral line in the AR. It was established that the X-flare occurred 20 h after the total gradient of the magnetic field of the entire region calculated from SDO/HMI data reached its maximum value. Analysis of the evolution of the microwave source that appeared before the X-flare in AR 12242 and comparison of its parameters with the parameters of other components of the AR microwave radiation showed that the new source can be classified as neutral line associated sources (NLSs), which were repeatedly detected by the RATAN-600 and other radio telescopes 1–3 days before the large flares.     

The probabilistic approach to estimating the origination of certain types of extreme solar events

The probability of origination of superpower flares (super-flares) on the Sun, the power of which is higher than that of the observed flares, is discussed. The probabilistic approach, which makes it possible to find the analytical expression for the distribution of the observed values of any solar activity parameter and to extrapolate the obtained function to the range of values that were not observed previously, is proposed. The estimated probabilities of implementation of the Wolf number (400) and the flare proton fluxes in the Earth’s orbit (from 60000 to 160000 s⁻¹ cm⁻²) are presented as an example. It has been obtained that these events occur ones per 10 000 and 100 years, respectively.