A synoptic parameterization of the drag coefficient

Abstract

The problem areas affecting the evaluation of hail suppression experiments are reviewed. These include the hail sensors and networks, trop damage data, statistical analysis, the hail‐suppression hypothesis, and the technology of cloud seeding. General directions of needed research are proposed.     

Design of hail measurement networks*

Abstract

Hail and rain data collected in the National Hail Research Experiment's 1976 dense precipitation network have proved useful in defining the requirements of hail measuring networks. It is shown, at least for the hailstorm of 22 June 1976, that the primary maxima and minima of the spatial distribution of hail mass are revealed by a hailpad spacing of about 4 km, and that increasing detail obtains with smaller spacings until with spacings of 0.4 to 0.8 km finer scale features with dimensions of 1–3 km become defined. Monte‐Carlo and conventional statistical analysis show that the confidence limits on the errer in estimating the true hail mass for a storm increase approximately linearly with the mean spacing of hailpads. For the hailfall of 22 June 1976, there is 90% confidence that the true hail mass is estimated within ± 10% for a hailpad spacing of 1.7 km. Estimates of hail kinetic energy and number of hailstones of this accuracy require that hailpads be approximately 10–20% closer or farther apart, respectively. There is no simple numerical relation between the densities of hailpad and wedge raingauge networks covering the same area such that, if satisfied, the networks would then provide estimates of hail mass and total precipitation of the same accuracy for any storm. There is considerable daily variation in the size of hailswaths and in the spatial distribution of hail mass within them, pointing to the need for a climatological study of these aspects of hailfall to assess properly the requirements that a hail network must meet in a given region.     

The use of single seeding events to evaluate the effect of hail suppression

Summary During the years 1977–82 a randomized hail suppression experiment, Grossversuch IV, was conducted in Central Switzerland, testing a Soviet seeding method, which was called the competing embryo concept. Due to logistical and technical difficulties there were several seeded hail cells with insufficient seeding coverage. This fact complicates a statistically proper evaluation of the experiment.To overcome the problem of insufficient seeding, a method is demonstrated, which takes a single seeding event (in our case one rocket) as the statistical unit instead of the seeded cell. The assumption is made that each rocket, which hit the zone of hail formation, reduces the hail production and can be investigated independently from the others. 19 seed cells with 226 truly fired rockets and 18 control cells with 170 simulated rockets, representing over 90% of the total global kinetic energy of all Grossversuch IV cells, were selected. A randomization test is introduced to test the average differences of the true and simulated seeding events. A highly significant increase of kinetic energy after seeding (p-value around 1%) is observed. This result supports the statistically non-significant trend obtained in the confirmatory analysis.With 4 Figures     

Radar measurements of integral parameters of hailstorms used on hail suppression projects

The exact quantitative estimation of hailstorm precipitation intensity, allowing determining successfully the crop hail damage, is extremely necessary while carrying out of programs of experimental researches of the hail clouds as well as at realization of operative projects on hail suppression. On the other hand, the possibility of obtaining a trustworthy information about changes of hailfall intensity during cloud seeding operations enables to judge more objectively about seeding effect and to make a decision about its beginning and termination. Just because of such a parameter, the kinetic energy of hailfalls presents a great interest for the researchers. As it is known, measuring the kinetic energy of hailfalls is carried out both directly by ground network of hailpads, and by radar methods. The accuracy of the radar methods of the hail kinetic energy measurement strongly depends not only on the choice of an optimum formula for calculation but also on the algorithm used for separating hail and rain parts of radar echo and on the way it was used in the hail–rain mixture zone of precipitation.The method of calculating the kinetic energy of the hailfalls, based on empirical dependence of hail probability P_h on a height of a zone of a radar echo with a reflectivity of 45 dBZ above a level of zero isotherm ΔH₄₅, is offered in the given work. The algorithm of separating hail and rain parts of a radar echo and the way it was applied in a hail–rain mixture zone is described. The examples of hail streaks in contours of radar reflectivity and in isopleths of hail kinetic energy obtained using the given algorithm are shown.In Mendoza province (Argentina), a hail suppression project (1993–1997) for the analysis of the vertical structure of a radar echo with Z_max > 45 dBZ, such new parameter is an integral altitude, was used. This dimensionless parameter is most sensitive to such a condition of radar echo when all four contours of increased reflectivity Z₄₅, Z₅₅, Z₆₅, and Z₇₅ synchronously reach the maximal values. The analysis of time distributions of the main radar parameters of hailstorms on a background of values of integral altitude is resulted. It is shown that local hailfall maximum intensities on the ground are observed after the achievement of maximum integral altitude with a certain delay. It enables to predict zones of the greatest hail damage in a mode of radar observation.     

当前外场防雹试验的若干情况

本文主要根据最近几次国际人工影响天气会议文集及有关资料,介绍了苏联、美国、中国以及许多欧洲国家的外场防雹试验情况、防雹作业方法与效果评估方法,特别是冰雹落地动能统计法。 对于防雹作业来说,取得成功的关键是及时、准确地确定播撒部位和作业时机。     

Diurnal variations of upper winds in summer in Alberta

Abstract

Analysis of diurnal variations of upper winds in summer in Alberta reveals features consistent with the hypothesis of a thermally‐induced wind system resulting from the juxtaposition of the Rocky Mountains and the Prairies. These include diurnal variation of flow that is most pronounced at two levels, one near the surface and one near the level of the mountain tops. Attempts to find a connection between such a system and occurrence of hail were unsuccessful.     

西藏冰雹的气候特征

利用1981 ～ 2008年的逐日冰雹资料和2007～2008年的天气图资料,通过线性倾向估计、功率谱和聚类分析等方法,分析了西藏冰雹的气候特征及天气背景,结果表明:西藏地区年均冰雹日数呈下降趋势,并呈现出2～3年的准周期变化.多雹区沿高原地形和山脉呈带状分布,北部较多,西部和东部相对较少.全区年均冰雹日数为20.8天,最大中心位于那曲;西藏地区冰雹具有明显的季、月、日变化,冰雹在3 ～ 10月均有发生,主要出现在6～9月,为典型的夏雹型,夜间和早晨很少降雹,主要发生在12 ～20时之间.西藏地区冰雹与海拔高度和雷暴有很好的正相关,冰雹的发生与低涡、切变线、西风槽和西太平洋副高等天气系统有着密切的联系.     

四川盆地南部边缘一次局地风雹天气的中尺度及雷达观测分析

利用中尺度天气图分析方法和雷达资料分析了2015年5月7日盆地南部边缘一次强风雹天气过程。结果表明:1)在有利的天气尺度系统影响下,高低空冷暖平流叠加区域和中低层干线和湿舌交汇区域是强对流天气发生的落区;2)雷达回波显示,强对流风暴具有弓形回波、穹窿、弱回波区等冰雹回波特征,中层径向辐合和反射率因子核心的反复上升下降对形成地面大风和冰雹具有重要的指示意义,降雹前后VIL的突变对冰雹的预警也有重要的预警作用;3)地面大风与地形的关系密切,地形对大风的形成有很好的促进作用。      

An Alberta study to objectively measure hailfall intensity

During the summer of 1973, two networks of hail detectors were established in a hail‐prone region of southern Alberta, in conjunction with the hail suppression investigations being carried out by Alberta Hail Studies (ALHAS).² Two hundred and seventy‐two farmer volunteers maintained the detectors in two regions totalling 1600 mi², providing a mean station spacing of 2.5 mi. Five dense networks with a detector spacing of 0.25 mi were also operated during August.

These detectors successfully recorded the hailfall on 17 severe thunderstorm days. The areal coverage of the hailfall was found to be less sporadic than was popularly believed, and the data revealed two different spatial scales of hailfall variation. A preliminary examination of the significance of these results for the design of precipitation (and particularly hail) measuring networks is undertaken.     

冰雹指数产品剖析及在灾害性强降水预报中的应用

深入研究了新一代天气雷达产品——冰雹指数的算法HDA，并分析讨论了算法的早期版本（7．0）和改进版本（10．0）的设计思路和优缺点，指出冰雹探测算法的思路与预报局地暴雨的思路相似，都是建立在对风暴单体中高反射率因子探测的基础上。据此，首次提出根据不同季节，利用冰雹指数预报灾害性强降水（冰雹和局地暴雨）的设想。通过对大量强降水个例中冰雹指数HI、垂直液态水含量VIL等雷达产品的统计分析和研究，总结了利用冰雹指数预报上海地区灾害性强降水的一些基本方法和算法阈值设置，以期为预报业务部门更好地使用新一代天气雷达导出产品提供一些参考信息。     

A Comparison of the Characteristics of Total and Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Activities in Hailstorms

The region of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei is covered by two different lightning detection networks: SAFIR (Systeme d’Alerte Fondre par Interferometrie Radioelecctrique) for total lightning, including IntraCloud (IC) flashes and Cloud-to-Ground (CG) flashes, and the ADTD (ADvanced TOA and Direction system; TOA denotes time of arrival) network of China for CG lightning. Fourteen isolated hail-bearing thunderstorms in this region were examined in this study, using the data of SAFIR and ADTD. The peak of lightning frequency, for both total lightning and CG lightning, was often observed in advance of the occurrence of hailstones on the ground, with a trend of a rapid increase of lightning frequency before the hail was reported. The average lead times of the two types of lightning jump before hail events were obtained (total lightning: 32.2 min; CG: 25.4 min) through the 2σ lightning jump algorithm. Additionally, in hailstorms with a high ratio of positive CG flashes, the diameter of hail was larger and the duration of hail was longer; when negative CG flashes dominated, the diameter of hail was relatively small. The comparison of the characteristics of total lightning and CG flashes in hailstorms in this study is expected to serve as a supplementary tool for hail forecasting.     

应用二维冰雹云模式做冰雹预报

应用二维冰雹云模式,模拟分析了渭干河灌区一次冰雹云过程的流场结构和云中含水量等宏微物理量的分布及其演变,并用１９９５年７～８月的探空资料,进行冰雹预报试验。结果表明：本模式可以真实地模拟出适合于冰雹云生长的环境流场、温度场、湿度场的分布及其演变过程,还可模拟出多单体雹云的发生、发展演变过程。根据大气层结稳定度,选择不同的热扰动强度,可使空报次数明显减少,预报准确率提高到６９．３％。     

Observations of dynamical and microphysical aspects related to hail formation with the polarimetric Doppler radar Oberpfaffenhofen

Summary For improving hail suppression strategies much more detailed knowledge on the individual hail formation process within the thermodynamical as well as the dynamical framework of hail producing cloud systems is needed. One possibility to obtain such knowledge on microphysical and dynamical processes simultaneously is with polarimetric Doppler radar measurements. The advanced polarimetric Doppler radar Oberpfaffenhofen, in operation since summer 1987, is described. Its unique capabilities, such as the real time estimation and display of the three Doppler moments reflectivity, Doppler velocity and spectral width as well as polarimetric parameters, such as depolarization ratios and the differential reflectivity are presented. Furthermore, from polarimetric measurements a hail signal is implemented which can be displayed in real time, too.The microphysical as well as dynamical structure of a squall line has been observed and a conceptual model of the hail formation process within this system is presented, thus illustrating the detailed insights into cloud processes possible with this new radar system.

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Zusammenfassung Ein neu entwickeltes Wolkenradar, ein polarimetrisches Dopplerradar, ist seit Anfang 1987 in Oberpfaffenhofen in Betrieb. Ein Schwerpunkt der Anwendungen liegt bei der Untersuchung hochreichender Konvektion mit Hagelbildung. Die in Echtzeit berechneten und dargestellten Dopplermomente Reflektivität, Dopplergeschwindigkeit und Spektralbreite der Dopplergeschwindigkeit ermöglichen die Verfolgung der dynamischen und turbulenten Vorgänge. Gleichzeitig können polarimetrische Parameter, wie z. B. Depolarisationsverhältnisse und die differentielle Reflektivität, berechnet und dargestellt werden, die Aufschluß über die im Auflösungsvolumen vorhandenen Hydrometeorarten geben. Insbesondere wurde ein aus polarimetrischen Messungen berechnetes Hagelsignal implementiert. Die Niederschlags- und Hagelentwicklung wurde in einer Squall Line mit dem Radar verfolgt, so daß der Hagelentstehungsprozeß konzeptionell beschrieben werden kann. Eine wesentliche Rolle bei der Hagelentwicklung spielten offenbar isoliert vor der Squall Line entstandene Kumuluswolken, die im mittleren Niveau auf der Vorderseite des Systems eingemischt werden.

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With 14 Figures     

The influence of atmospheric circulation on the occurrence of hail in the North German Lowlands

The atmospheric circulation and thermal conditions in the troposphere were analysed to identify the situations which are conductive to hail development in the North German Lowlands. They were established on the basis of the data obtained from the US National Center for Environmental Prediction/US National Center for Atmospheric Research Reanalysis database, and they included sea level pressure, 500 hPa geopotential height, the temperature at 850 and 500 hPa and HYSPLIT backward trajectories model. Daily information about hail occurrence in 16 selected stations was received from Deutscher Wetterdienst database and it covered the years 1951–2010. It was found that hail in the studied area was connected with large negative anomalies of the sea level pressure over Scandinavia and, consequently, the northwestern direction of air mass influx. In some cases, hail was associated with the northern influx, with strong negative anomalies of the temperature, and with positive anomalies of the temperature during the southern influx of air masses.     

Calculations of hailstone growth in a sloping steady updraft

Abstract

Analytical solutions to the equations of growth and motion of hailstones in updrafts with cloud water contents that vary linearly with height are used to investigate hail growth in a model cloud. The model storm is steady and two‐dimensional and is constructed by compositing sections with linear variations of vertical air velocity and cloud water content so as to approximate the Fleming storm. Hail embryos are introduced at various positions in the updraft and their subsequent history calculated. A strong correlation is found between the embryo starting position and its trajectory and final size. Embryos starting in the central portions of the updraft are carried up rapidly and displaced far from the updraft. Embryos starting near the upshear edge of the updrafr have a simple arcing up and down trajectory and produce small hailstones that can be expected to melt before reaching the ground. Embryos starting near the downshear edge of the updraft give rise to the largest hailstones and have recirculating trajectories. Effects of changing some of the model parameters are investigated.     

The Potential Impact of Global Warming on Hail Losses to Winter Cereal Crops in New South Wales

This study was undertaken to determine the impact of potential global warming on the magnitude of hail losses to winter cereal crops within two areas situated on the western slopes of New South Wales, Australia. A model relating historical crop hail losses to climatic variables was developed for each area. These models included seasonal measures of vertical instability, low-level moisture and the height of the freezing level. In both areas, windshear was not found to be an important factor influencing seasonal crop hail losses. The two crop hail loss models were then used in conjunction with upper-air climatic data from three single mixed-layer global climate models (GCMs). Each GCM was run for 1 × CO₂ conditions and for 2 × CO₂ conditions. The enhanced greenhouse effect on climatic variables was taken to be the difference between their values for these two runs. Changes to climatic variables were then translated directly into changes in the percentage value of the winter cereal crop lost due to hail. In both areas, the three GCMs agreed concerning the direction of change in each of the variables used in the crop hail loss model. GCM simulations of the greenhouse effect resulted in a decline in winter cereal crop hail losses, with the exception of one GCM simulation at one location where losses increased slightly. None of the changes due to the enhanced greenhouse effect, however, were significant owing to a large observed seasonal variability of crop hail losses. Also, the simulated seasonal variability of crop hail losses did not change significantly due to the enhanced greenhouse effect. These results depended on two important assumptions. Firstly, it was assumed that the dominant relationships between climatic variables and crop hail losses in the past would remain the same in a future climate. Secondly, it was assumed that the single mixed-layer GCMs used in the study were correctly predicting climate change under enhanced greenhouse conditions.     

1961～2015年中国地区冰雹持续时间的时空分布特征及影响因子研究

本文利用1961～2015年（55年）中国地区577个地面观测站的冰雹资料,应用统计学方法,分析了冰雹持续时间的空间分布、年际变化以及日变化特征,包括站点降雹累积持续时间、平均单次降雹持续时间、区域平均单次降雹持续时间、小时降雹累积持续时间和总降雹累积持续时间。结果表明:（1）1961～2015年中国地区站点降雹累积持续时间与海拔高度呈现较高的正相关关系,相关系数高达0.99。站点降雹累积持续时间的最大值出现在青藏高原地区,累积持续时间高达250分钟,其次为内蒙古中部以及东北部的山区地带,累积持续时间约为150分钟。（2）1961～2015年平均单次降雹持续时间呈现上升趋势,55年冰雹累积持续时间大约增长1分钟,且通过了95%信度水平的显著性检验。（3）西北地区、北部平原地区和东南地区在1961～1980年期间,区域平均单次降雹持续时间都有显著的下降趋势,而在1970～2015年期间西北地区和青藏高原地区呈现显著的上升趋势。1961～1980年期间区域平均单次降雹持续时间在西北地区的长期趋势变化主要受到日最低气温以及温度日较差长期年际变化的影响,在北部平原地区仅与温度日较差相关,而在东南地区与三个对流参数都有较好的相关性;1970～2015年和1961～2015年期间西北地区和青藏高原地区的区域平均单次降雹持续时间的上升趋势分别与这两个区域的区域平均日最高气温、日最低气温呈正相关。（4）单次降雹持续时间的日变化明显,午后至夜间出现的冰雹持续时间长于凌晨和上午的冰雹持续时间,持续时间峰值出现在当地时间17时和18时。本文还利用探空资料分析了对流有效势能和Totals-totals指数与冰雹持续时间的关系,结果表明中国地区20时（北京时）的对流有效势能和Totals-totals指数可能是冰雹持续时间日变化的影响因子之一。     

Pilot project for intensive surveillance of hail events in Terres de Ponent (Lleida)

Hail is one of the most fearsome meteorological phenomena for agricultural areas. The harvest of the whole year can be destroyed in only a few minutes. A pilot project to characterise hail events and identify hail with the help of radar observations is described in this paper. This pilot project was carried out in Terres de Ponent, an area of about 200,000 ha in Lleida (Catalonia), in the NE of the Iberian Peninsula.The aim of the project was to characterise hail events, directly by radiosounding data and radar images, and indirectly by the evaluation of the radiosonde forecasted by the Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) Mesoscale Atmospheric Simulation System (MASS) and several instability indices. In the first stage of the project several instability indices were calculated during the 5 months of the campaign and a comparison of these indices with those obtained with radiosounding data from Barcelona and Zaragoza was performed. An operative image of the probability of hail distribution in Catalonia (every 6 min, hourly and daily) was also made using the Waldvogel method for its detection. As a starting point, an empirical fit of POH (probability of hail) obtained recently in the Netherlands (POH = 0.319 + 0.133·ΔH, where ΔH is the difference between the 45 dBZ echo top height from radar image and the isozero forecast). Complementary to this, to detect the hail at the beginning of spring, the process was repeated with the 35 dBZ echo top.In a second stage of the project, the calculated POH was compared with the hail events measured by 171 hailpads of the observational network of the Agrupació de Defensa Vegetal (ADV) of Terres de Ponent and a new fit of the POH formula was obtained. It was also the aim of this second stage to validate the forecasted radiosoundings by the NWP MASS model in Lleida and Barcelona. Finally, a comparison between the radiosounding data from Barcelona, Lleida and Zaragoza was made to verify which radiosounding (Barcelona or Zaragoza) is more representative of the Lleida area.     

1961～2017年遵义地区冰雹时空分布特征

本文利用CIMISS、遵义13个气象站月报表等数据,收集了1961年1月1日至2017年12月31日遵义地区气象站的冰雹、大风和降水情况,从冰雹直径、冰雹时间和空间分布、冰雹与大风的关系、冰雹与降水的关系等方面综合分析了遵义地区冰雹时空分布特征。结果表明：遵义地区降雹以小冰雹为主,发生大冰雹的概率小;降雹持续时间以短时降雹为主,降雹点1日内多次降雹可能性小;降雹日数余庆最多,赤水最少,遵义东部降雹日数最多,中部、西部和北部依次递减,大范围降雹的可能性较小;降雹时间集中在2～5月,其中4月最多,旬分布上看,5月上旬降雹日数最多;遵义地区降雹主要出现在夜间,白天集中在14～20 时;冰雹日数的年际变化和年代际变化总体呈下降的趋势,2011～2020年冰雹日数总和很可能跌破历史极值;降雹点出现大风的可能性较小,但整个遵义地区在同一天内既出现降雹又出现大风的概率高达74.23%;冰雹直径和降雨量之间呈弱的正相关。