Summer circulation of the waters in Queen Charlotte sound

Abstract

An extensive set of measurements of currents, winds, subsurface pressures and water properties was undertaken in the summer of 1982 in Queen Charlotte Sound on the west coast of Canada. At most observation sites the summer‐averaged currents are found to be about 10 cm s^?1, smaller than the tidal currents but comparable to the standard deviation of the non‐tidal currents. The strongest average flow was the outflow of surface water past Cape St James at the northwestern corner of the Sound. During strong winds from the north or northwest a strong outflow of near‐surface fresher water was also observed over Cook Bank in the south. Eddies dominate the motion in the interior of the Sound, as shown by the behaviour of a near‐surface drifter that remained in mid‐Sound for 40 days before a storm pushed it into Hecate Strait. The disorganized, weak currents in the central Sound will likely allow surface waters or floating material to remain there for periods of several weeks in summer.

Empirical orthogonal function analyses of fluctuating currents, subsurface pressures and winds reveal that a single mode explains most of the wind and pressure variance but not the current variance. The first two pressure modes represent two distinct physical processes. The first mode is a nearly uniform, up‐and‐down pumping of the surface, while the second mode tilts across the basin from east to west, likely due to geostrophic adjustment of wind‐driven currents. This mode also tilts from south to north, owing to along‐strait wind stress. Most contributions to the first mode currents come from meters near shore or the edge of a trough. Coherence is high between these second mode pressures and first mode currents and winds, and lower but still significant between first mode pressures and first mode currents and winds. It is therefore difficult to predict the behaviour of currents in Queen Charlotte Sound in summer from pressure measurements at a single site, but the difference in sea‐level across Hecate Strait is a more reliable indicator.     

Semi‐diurnal internal wave diffraction caused by Dixon Entrance,British Columbia

Abstract

To develop an understanding of the complex internal tidal phenomena observed near and inside Dixon Entrance, an idealized numerical model was developed for the area, which explores the influence of various topographic features on the scattering of internal tides. The model uses a non‐linear, two‐layered, frictionless finite difference formulation of the shallow water equations and is forced by a barotropic wave over simplified topography. It was found that the main bathymetric features responsible for the generation of semi‐diurnal internal tides are the steep continental slope together with the orientation of Dixon Entrance. The prevalent baroclinic wave pattern, which is similar to the one found by Buchwald (1971), suggests that the western end of Dixon Entrance can be considered as an internal tide generation region for the open ocean. Use of the simple model allows easy identification of the generated waves. When the model is run with a non‐flat channel it reproduces features observed inside Dixon Entrance.     

Tidal circulation and buoyancy effects in the St. Lawrence Estuary

Abstract

The action of tides on density‐driven circulation, internal gravity waves, and mixing was investigated in the St. Lawrence Estuary between Rimouski and Québec City. Time‐varying fields of water level, currents and density were computed under typical summer conditions using a three‐dimensional hydrostatic coastal ocean model that incorporates a second order turbulence closure submodel. These results are compared with current meter records and other observations. The model and the observations reveal buoyancy effects produced by tidal forcing. The semi‐diurnal tide raises the isopycnals over the sills at the head of the Laurentian Trough and English Bank, producing internal tides radiating seaward. Relatively dense intermediate waters rise from below 75‐m depth to the near surface over the sills, setting up gravity currents on the inner slopes. Internal hydraulic controls develop over the outer sills; during flood, surface flow separation occurs at the entrances of the Saguenay Fjord and the upper estuary west of Ilet Rouge Bank. Early during ebb flow (restratification), the surface layer deepens to encompass the tops of the sills. As the ebb current intensifies, the model predicts the formation of seaward internal jumps over the outer sills, which were confirmed from acoustic reflection observations. As the internal Froude number increases further, flow separation migrates up to sill height. As a result of these transitions, internal bores emanate from the head region one to two hours before low water. We find that the mixing of oceanic and surface waters near the sills is driven by the vertical shear produced during ebb in the channel south of Ilet Rouge, the shear produced in the bottom gravity flood currents, and, to a lesser extent, the processes over the sills.     

Skew eddy fluxes as signatures of non‐linear tidal current interactions,with application to Georges Bank

Abstract

The eddy flux of a conservative scalar in a time‐dependent rotary velocity field may have a component that is normal to the scalar gradient. This component is the “skew flux”, which consists of the scalar transport by the Stokes velocity and a part that is always non‐divergent (and hence does not affect scalar evolution). Since tidal velocity fields usually have rotary features, tidal‐band eddy scalar fluxes may include a skew component that can be useful in indicating the occurrence of non‐linear current interactions.

The skew temperature flux associated with the semidiurnal tide in a continental shelf region is demonstrated using simple models, and moored current and temperature observations from Georges Bank. The observed fluxes on the Bank are largely directed along isobaths, with apparent contributions from the topographic rectification of the barotropic tidal current over the Bank's side and from the rotary tidal ellipses in a frontal region. Simple models indicate that the weaker cross‐isobath fluxes can arise through the influence of frictionally induced vertical structure on topographic tidal rectification, a baroclinic tidal current interaction, or the interaction of baroclinic and barotropic tidal currents. In some cases, the simple models show qualitative agreement with the observed fluxes and currents but, in general, more realistic models and better estimates of the background mean temperature field are required to obtain quantitative estimates of the relative importance of these interactions and other processes. Nevertheless, the observations and models suggest that non‐linear interactions involving both barotropic and baroclinic tidal currents are occurring on Georges Bank.     

Gas ventilation of the Saguenay fjord by an energetic tidal front

Abstract

Dissolved noble gas samples were taken during a pilot study in the Saguenay Fjord, Quebec, Canada, in order to determine the contribution of different air‐sea gas exchange mechanisms in an estuary and to assess the contribution of tidal fronts to the aeration of subsurface waters. The noble gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe span a large range of molecular diffusivities and solubilities and hence constitute a useful probe of various gas exchange and bubble injection processes. Samples were taken at flood tide upstream and downstream of an energetic tidal front that is generated by a hydraulically controlled flow over a shallow sill at the entrance to the Fjord. The results are interpreted with the help of hydrographic measurements of density and currents along cross‐sill transects describing the physical forcing at the sill. High gas saturations downstream of the sill indicate the aeration of water within the frontal region. An inverse model is used to compare the contribution of bubble injection in the front to diffusion across the air‐sea interface. The large ratio of completely ‘trapped’ bubbles to diffusion suggests that bubbles injected by waves breaking in the front contribute significantly to air‐sea gas exchange with 76% for He, 79% for Ne, 56% for Ar, 47% for Kr, and 35% for Xe.

Water samples were analyzed for helium isotopes and tritium in order to explore the possibility of constraining ventilation time scales. The relationship between tritium and salinity revealed two end‐member waters: a freshwater component from the Saguenay River of 23.6 ± 0.5 TU, likely a residual of bomb‐produced tritium, and a seawater end‐member of approximately 1.5 TU originating in the subpolar Atlantic. An unexpected contribution of radiogenic 4He was detected in the deep waters of the St. Lawrence Estuary, likely a consequence of out‐gassing from old, uranium and thorium rich granitic terrain.     

Oceanographic features of Hecate Strait and Queen Charlotte Sound in Summer

Abstract

We present evidence of previously unresolved oceanographic features in Queen Charlotte Sound and Hecate Strait using data collected in the summer of 1990 and interpreted using a three‐dimensional, finite‐element diagnostic numerical model for two separate simulations: baroclinic flow without wind‐forcing and barotropic flow with wind‐forcing. Features include a strong, prevailing southward flow along the east coast of Moresby and Kunghit Islands, clockwise circulation around the edge of Middle Bank and a cold‐water plume flowing from the shallows at the north end of Aristazabal Island toward the south and through the trough between Middle Bank and Goose Island Bank A persistent (near‐surface) outflow into the Pacific Ocean is found near the surface within 20 km of Cape St. James at the southern tip of the Queen Charlotte Islands and intermittent surface outflows are observed across the mouth of Queen Charlotte Sound. In central Hecate Strait, to the north of Middle Bank, prevailing along‐strait currents are weak and there is an east‐west interleaving of two water masses: warm water from the west side of the strait and cold water from the east side.     

Wind‐driven depth‐averaged circulation in Queen Charlotte Sound and Hecate Strait

Abstract

We develop a wind‐driven depth‐averaged model of the circulation on the continental shelf around the Queen Charlotte Islands. The model captures a major feature of the winter current‐meter observations: a flow in Moresby Trough against the direction of the prevailing winds. Moresby Trough is a steep submarine canyon cutting across the shelf from the Pacific Ocean to the mainland. The flow patterns revealed by simulated drifters lead to four generalizations about the depth‐averaged, wind‐driven flow: (1) the flow is subject to strong topographic steering, (2) the exchange between Queen Charlotte Sound and the Pacific Ocean is limited to small regions near Cape St James and Cape Scott, (3) the exchange between Queen Charlotte Sound and Hecate Strait is controlled by Moresby Trough, and (4) the observed outflows past Cape St James are not explained by the dynamics of this model.     

Winter‐time near‐surface currents in the strait of Juan de Fuca

Abstract

During November 1976 to February 1977 near‐surface wind, current and temperature measurements were made at three sites along the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Strong tidal currents and major intrusions of warmer, fresher offshore coastal water were superimposed upon the estuarine circulation of near‐surface seaward flow. The r.m.s. amplitudes of the diurnal and semidiurnal tidal currents were ～30 cms^‐1 and 30–47 cm s^‐1, respectively. The vector‐mean flow at 4 m‐depth was seaward and decreased in speed from 28 cm s^‐1 at 74 km from the entrance to 9 cm s^‐1 at 11 km from the entrance. On five occasions intrusions of 1–3 C warmer northeast Pacific coastal water occurred for durations of 1–10 days. The 25 cm s^‐1 up‐strait speed of the intrusive lens agreed to within 20% of the gravity current speed computed from Benjamin's (1968) hydraulic model. The near‐surface currents associated with the intrusions and the southerly coastal winds were significantly correlated, indicating that the intrusions were initiated when shoreward Ekman currents advected Pacific coastal water into the Strait. The reversals were not significantly coherent with the along‐strait sea surface slope measured along the north side of the Strait nor were they strongly related to local wind forcing.     

Wind driven general circulation of the Mediterranean Sea simulated with a Spectral Element Ocean Model

This work is an attempt to simulate the Mediterranean Sea general circulation with a Spectral Finite Element Model. This numerical technique associates the geometrical flexibility of the finite elements for the proper coastline definition with the precision offered by spectral methods. The model is reduced gravity and we study the wind-driven ocean response in order to explain the large scale sub-basin gyres and their variability. The study period goes from January 1987 to December 1993 and two forcing data sets are used. The effect of wind variability in space and time is analyzed and the relationship between wind stress curl and ocean response is stressed. Some of the main permanent structures of the general circulation (Gulf of Lions cyclonic gyre, Rhodes gyre, Gulf of Syrte anticylone) are shown to be induced by permanent wind stress curl structures. The magnitude and spatial variability of the wind is important in determining the appearance or disappearance of some gyres (Tyrrhenian anticyclonic gyre, Balearic anticyclonic gyre, Ionian cyclonic gyre). An EOF analysis of the seasonal variability indicates that the weakening and strengthening of the Levantine basin boundary currents is a major component of the seasonal cycle in the basin.The important discovery is that seasonal and interannual variability peak at the same spatial scales in the ocean response and that the interannual variability includes the change in amplitude and phase of the seasonal cycle in the sub-basin scale gyres and boundary currents. The Coriolis term in the vorticity balance seems to be responsible for the weakening of anticyclonic structures and their total disappearance when they are close to a boundary.The process of adjustment to winds produces a train of coastally trapped gravity waves which travel around the eastern and western basins, respectively in approximately 6 months. This corresponds to a phase velocity for the wave of about 1 m/s, comparable to an average velocity of an internal Kelvin wave in the area.     

The Ocean Circulation of Chatham Sound,British Columbia,Canada: Results From Numerical Modelling Studies Using Historical Datasets

Chatham Sound, a semi-enclosed inland sea located off northern British Columbia, is an important waterway due to many proposed industrial activities related to the Port of Prince Rupert, along with its high levels of marine productivity. The oceanographic forcing in Chatham Sound is complex due to a combination of large tides, seasonally strong winds, and large freshwater discharges. Although much oceanographic data have been collected over the past six decades, past studies of the oceanographic regime of the full Chatham Sound area have been very limited. Using these extensive forcing datasets, high-resolution three-dimensional numerical modelling using the Coastal Circulation model for Sediment transport was conducted to investigate the tidal and wind-driven currents in the stratified waters of Chatham Sound. The numerical study shows the progression of the river-dominated lower salinity near-surface waters being advected northward, especially on the eastern side of Chatham Sound, with more saline waters on the western side of the Sound, especially in areas of exchanges with the waters of Hecate Strait through side channels. These surface circulation results are in good agreement with the large-scale representation of the outer diffuse Skeena River plume as seen in high-resolution Landsat satellite imagery. The model was operated over a representative year with four seasonal model runs. Southern Chatham Sound was found to be dominated by large tidal currents. Seasonal variations of residual flow were also investigated. Significant correlation between non-tidal current speeds and Skeena River discharges was found in the Skeena River delta area and through narrow tidal channels in southern Chatham Sound. In other offshore areas, non-tidal currents were found to be constrained near the surface and driven mainly by winds.     

On the role of the unresolved eddies in a model of the residual currents in the central strait of Georgia,B.C.: Research Note

Abstract

A depth‐independent numerical model of the Juan de Fuca/Strait of Georgia system reproduces the broad structure of the observed depth‐averaged residual circulation in the Central Strait of Georgia but underestimates its magnitude (Marinone and Fyfe, 1992). Here we present some new calculations based on a re‐parameterization of the unresolved eddies in terms of “statistical dynamical tendencies” instead of the previous eddy‐viscosity treatment. With the new parameterization, the simulated time‐mean flow is closer to the observed circulation both in structure and magnitude. While not specifically designed to do so, the new parameterization also leads to a modest improvement in the low‐pass filtered component of the flow. Based on these results, the depth‐averaged residual currents in the region are conjectured to involve a four‐way balance between the hitherto ignored effect of “statistical dynamical tendencies” and conventional tidal, atmospheric and buoyancy forcing.     

The temporal evolution of a geostrophic flow in a rotating stratified basin

A laboratory study in a rotating stratified basin examines the instability and long time evolution of the geostrophic double gyre introduced by the baroclinic adjustment to an initial basin-scale step height discontinuity in the density interface of a two-layer fluid. The dimensionless parameters that are important in determining the observed response are the Burger number S=R/R₀ (where R is the baroclinic Rossby radius of deformation and R₀ is the basin radius) and the initial forcing amplitude (H₁ is the upper layer depth). Experimental observations and a numerical approach, using contour dynamics, are used to identify the mechanisms that result in the dominance of nonlinear behaviour in the long time evolution, τ>2⁻¹ (where τ is time scaled by the inertial period T_I=2π/f). When the influence of rotation is moderate (0.25≤S≤1), the instability mechanism is associated with the finite amplitude potential vorticity (PV) perturbation introduced when the double gyre is established. On the other hand, when the influence of rotation is strong (S≤0.1), baroclinic instability contributes to the nonlinear behaviour. Regardless of the mechanism, nonlinearity acts to transfer energy from the geostrophic double gyre to smaller scales associated with an eddy field. In the lower layer, Ekman damping is pronounced, resulting in the dissipation of the eddy field after only 40T_I. In the upper layer, where dissipative effects are weak, the eddy field evolves until it reaches a symmetric distribution of potential vorticity within the domain consisting of cyclonic and anticyclonic eddy pairs, after approximately 100T_I. The functional dependence of the characteristic eddy lengthscale L_E on S is consistent with previous laboratory studies on continuously forced geostrophic turbulence. The cyclonic and anticyclonic eddy pairs are maintained until viscous effects eventually dissipate all motion in the upper layer after approximately 800T_I. The outcomes of this study are considered in terms of their contribution to the understanding of the energy pathways and transport processes associated with basin-scale motions in large stratified lakes.     

Cyclonic/anticyclonic gyre asymmetries: laboratory and intermediate-model experiments

Laboratory models of rapidly rotating geophysical flows often show significant asymmetries with respect to the sign of the gyre forcing. In this paper we focus on the instability of separated boundary currents and the resulting transition to time-dependent motion in a slightly sliced cylinder driven by a differentially rotating lid. This transition occurs more readily for cyclonic (co-rotating) gyre forcing, when compared with that observed for anticyclonic forcing, even though the system Rossby number is very small. Quasi-geostrophic models are invariant to changes in the sign of the forcing, so a more accurate theoretical framework must be used to capture the observed asymmetries. An intermediate model, which includes a second-order nonlinear Ekman suction relation, is proposed and integrated numerically. The results are in significantly better agreement with the laboratory observations, and simple diagnostics illustrate which of the higher-order physical effects are responsible for the enhanced instability of cyclonically forced gyres.     

Water exchange in fjords induced by tidally generated internal lee waves

Tidal processes are examined that control the water exchange between two basins of the Trondheimsfjord through a narrow channel with sills. For this purpose, a non-hydrostatic numerical model based on the laterally averaged Reynolds equations in the Boussinesq approximation was developed. The model takes into account the real vertical fluid stratification, variable bottom topography and variable cross-section of the fjord. Numerical experiments were performed to investigate tidally generated internal waves and their influence on the water exchange.The model produces both baroclinic tides and tidally generated lee waves. It was found that, for the Skarnsund strait which connects the Middle Fjord and the Beitstadfjord, the internal tides generated over the Skarnsund sills are very weak. Their amplitudes do not exceed 1 m.The intense short internal waves, which are identified as unsteady lee waves, comprise the basic input of the total internal wave field. These waves are generated by tidal currents at sill breaks, are trapped by topography in the generation area and grow by continuing feedback into large-amplitude waves. As the tidal flow slackens, they move upstream as freely propagating waves.As essentially nonlinear responses, the lee waves cause a nonlinear water transport. The detailed analysis of the residual currents produced by unsteady lee waves (which are propagating in both directions from the Scarnsund sills) has shown, in particular, that the residual currents can reach values as high as 0.27 m s⁻¹.It was also found that such currents exert a considerable effect on the water exchange through the Skarnsund strait between the adjacent basins. This mechanism can play an important role in water renewal and formation of the Beitasdfjord waters.     

Modelling stratification and baroclinic flow in the estuarine transition zone of the St. Lawrence estuary

Abstract

This paper presents a hydrodynamic study of the St. Lawrence Estuary's estuarine transition zone, a 100 km region where fresh water from the river mixes with salt water from the estuary. The circulation of the estuarine transition zone is driven by strong tides, a large river flow, and well‐defined salinity gradients. For this study, a three‐dimensional hydrodynamic model was applied to the estuarine transition zone of the St. Lawrence Estuary and used to examine stratification and density‐driven baroclinic flow. The model was calibrated to field observations and subsequently predicted water level elevations, along‐channel currents, and salinity with mean errors of less than 9%, 11%, and 17%, respectively. The baroclinic density‐driven currents were distinguished from the tidal barotropic currents by using principal component analysis. Stratification and baroclinic flow were observed to vary throughout the estuarine transition zone on tidal and subtidal spring‐neap time scales. On a semidiurnal tidal time scale, stratification was periodic, and baroclinic flow was represented by pulses of sheared exchange flow, suggesting that neither buoyancy forcing nor turbulent mixing is dominant at this scale. On a subtidal spring‐neap time scale, stratification and baroclinic flow varied inversely with tidal energy, increasing on weak neap tides and decreasing on strong spring tides.     

The oil spill behaviour model of the Canadian atmospheric environment service Part I: Theory and model evaluation

Abstract

This paper describes a model to simulate the behaviour of oil spills in marine environments. The model includes parametrizations of various physical processes representing the movement and weathering of an oil slick. The movement of the slick is affected by wind‐driven, tidal and residual water currents. Turbulent dispersion is an important mechanism influencing the horizontal spreading of the slick for time periods greater than about a day.

The model is used to simulate successfully the movement of spill‐following buoys deployed in the Bay of Fundy, where some of the strongest tidal currents in the world occur. The ability of the model to simulate the horizontal spreading of an oil slick was evaluated with observed data from the Argo Merchant oil spill for a 10‐day period. It was found that the observed shape and extent of the spill could be fairly well described by the parametrization of turbulent dispersion effects.     

Effects of large-scale wind on the Kuroshio path south of Japan in a 60-year historical OGCM simulation

The effects of large-scale wind forcing on the bimodality of the Kuroshio path south of Japan, the large meander (LM) and non-large meander (NLM), were studied by using a historical simulation (1948–2007) with a high-resolution Ocean general circulation models (OGCM). The Kuroshio in this simulation spent much time in the NLM state, and reproduced several aspects of its long-term path variability for the first time in historical OGCM simulation, presumably because the eddy kinetic energy was kept at a moderate level. By using the simulated fields, the relationships between wind forcing (or Kuroshio transport) and path variation proposed by past studies were tested, and specific roles of eddies in those variations were investigated. The long-term variation of the simulated net Kuroshio transport south of Japan was largely explained by the linear baroclinic Rossby wave adjustment to wind forcing. In the simulated LM events, a triggering meander originated from the interaction of a wind-induced positive sea surface height (SSH) anomaly with the upstream Kuroshio and was enlarged by cyclonic eddies from the recirculation gyre. The cyclonic eddy of the trigger meander was followed by a sizable anticyclonic eddy on the upstream side. Subsequently, a weak (strong) Kuroshio favored the LM (NLM). The LM tended to be maintained when the Kuroshio transport off southern Japan was small, and increasing Kuroshio transport promoted decay of an existing LM. The supply of disturbances from upstream, which is related to the wind-induced SSH variability at low latitudes, contributed to the maintenance of an existing LM.     

Impact of 10–60-Day Low-Frequency Steering Flows on Straight Northward-Moving Typhoon Tracks over the Western North Pacific

This study investigates the impact of low-frequency (intraseasonal and interannual) steering flows on straight northward-moving (defined as a meridional displacement two times greater than the zonal displacement) typhoons over the western North Pacific using observational data. The year-to-year change in the northward-moving tracks is affected by the interannual change in the location and intensity of the subtropical high. A strengthened northward steering flow east of 120°E and a weakened easterly steering flow south of the subtropical high favor more frequent straight northward tracks. Examining each of the individual northward-moving typhoons shows that they interact with three types of intraseasonal (10–60-day) background flows during their northward journey. The first type is the monsoon gyre pattern, in which the northward-moving typhoon is embedded in a closed cyclonic monsoon gyre circulation. The second type is the wave train pattern, where a cyclonic (anticyclonic) vorticity circulation is located to the west (east) of the northward-moving typhoon center. The third type is the mid-latitude trough pattern, in which the northward-moving typhoon center is located in the maximum vorticity region of the trough.     

The formation and maintenance of the North Water Polynya

Abstract

This paper investigates the formation and maintenance of the North Water Polynya, Baffin Bay in winter using a multi‐category sea‐ice model coupled with the Princeton ocean model. Monthly climatological atmospheric data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis provides the forcing. An objectively‐analysed climatology provides the initial ocean temperature and salinity. Wind stress drives the ice in a cyclonic gyre around northern Baffin Bay. Localized regions of thin ice form where wind drives ice away from coastlines or fast ice. The regions of thin ice are characterized by enhanced ice growth, exceeding 1.2 m mo^?1. In the regions of thin ice, surface ocean heat flux is also enhanced and is between 30–60 W m^?2. Surface heat flux is, in part, attributable to convective mixing and entrainment driven by ice growth. The surface heat flux reflects advection of the warm West Greenland Current. Heat and salt balances show that horizontal advective exchange counterbalances surface fluxes of heat and salt.