Analysis of deep‐drogued satellite‐tracked drifter measurements in the northeast pacific

Abstract

We analyse the trajectories of 24 deep‐drogued, satellite‐tracked drifters launched between 50 and 52°N in the northeast Pacific during June and October 1987. Three aspects of the observed motions at the drogue depths of 100 to 120 m are studied: (i) the spatial structure of the mean and variance velocity fields; (ii) the dispersion and eddy diffusion characteristics of the fluctuating motions; and (iii) the properties of selected mesoscale eddies.

The mean Lagrangian velocity field is consistent with the mean flow pattern derived from the historical dynamic height topography. Fluctuating motions within the region are dominated by mesoscale eddies and meanders. Several instances of persistent O(100 days) westward flowing countercurrents were also observed. Based on the Lagrangian integral time‐ and length scales, drifter motions become decorrelated within a period of 10 days and a separation of 100 km. The mean zonal and meridional integral time‐scales of 4.5 and 3.6 days, respectively, are nearly identical with those obtained by Krauss and Böning (1987) from deep‐drogued drifter tracks in the North Atlantic. Because of the relatively small (<100 cm² s^?2) kinetic energy values in the northeast Pacific, the corresponding mean Lagrangian length scales of 29.4 and 29.9 km are roughly half those for the Atlantic.

The observed drifter dispersion is generally consistent with Taylor's (1921) theory for single‐particle dispersion in homogeneous isotropic turbulence. Estimates obtained using 476 pseudo‐drifter tracks generated from the original records indicate that the dispersion increases linearly with time, t, within the first 3 to 5 days of launch and subsequently increases as t^1/2 (the random‐walk regime) within 10 days of launch. The respective peak zonal and meridional eddy diffusion coefficients of 4.1 × and 3.8 × 10⁷ cm² s^?1 are reached within 30 days of deployment. Similar estimates for the peak eddy diffusivities are obtained using dispersion curves for sets of 4 drifters launched at the same location during the June and October deployments. The dispersion of these clusters followed an exponential rather than a t^1/2 dependence over the first 70 days after release.

Eddies are predominantly clockwise rotary and are characterized by radii of 26 ± 16 km, periods of rotation of 16.0 ± 5.2 days, and azimuthal current speeds of 12.7 ± 8.6 cm s^?1. One eddy was tracked for over 10 months. Oceanographic data collected during the October deployment period showed the eddies have vertical extents of 500 to 700 m and are linked to isotherm depressions of over 100 m in the main pycnocline. All eddies in the bifurcation zone propagate to the west at roughly 1.5 ± 0.4 cm s^?1 counter to the prevailing mean flow and winds. These speeds are consistent with the westward phase speeds of first mode baroclinic planetary (Rossby) waves.     

黑潮延伸体中尺度涡年代际变化与北太平洋风暴轴变化之间的关系

利用18年带通滤波的卫星高度计资料,通过引入黑潮延伸体中尺度涡能量(EKE)的面积指数,分析了黑潮延伸体中尺度涡EKE的强度和位置的年代际变化特征,并使用回归分析等方法分析了它们与北太平洋风暴轴之间的关系。结果表明,黑潮延伸体中尺度涡增强与北太平洋风暴轴的增强相对应,而EKE位置偏北(南)时对应的北太平洋风暴轴也偏北(南),同时当EKE的位置偏东(偏西)时北太平洋风暴轴则西退(东移)。此外,北太平洋风暴轴的变化对黑潮延伸体也可能有一定的反馈作用,黑潮延伸体中尺度涡EKE强度的变化与北太平洋风暴轴EOF第一和第三个模态(第二个模态)回归的海表面高度距平模态有明显的3~4年滞后的正(负)相关,而黑潮延伸体中尺度涡EKE位置的变化则相反。这种滞后相关可能是通过北太平洋风暴轴驱动的遥相关型环流改变海表面风应力旋度并强迫出的海表面高度距平的西传导致的。     

Heat balance and eddies in the Peru-Chile current system

The Peru-Chile current System (PCS) is a region of persistent biases in global climate models. It has strong coastal upwelling, alongshore boundary currents, and mesoscale eddies. These oceanic phenomena provide essential heat transport to maintain a cool oceanic surface underneath the prevalent atmospheric stratus cloud deck, through a combination of mean circulation and eddy flux. We demonstrate these behaviors in a regional, quasi-equilibrium oceanic model that adequately resolves the mesoscale eddies with climatological forcing. The key result is that the atmospheric heating is large (>50 W m^?2) over a substantial strip >500 km wide off the coast of Peru, and the balancing lateral oceanic flux is much larger than provided by the offshore Ekman flux alone. The atmospheric heating is weaker and the coastally influenced strip is narrower off Chile, but again the Ekman flux is not sufficient for heat balance. The eddy contribution to the oceanic flux is substantial. Analysis of eddy properties shows strong surface temperature fronts and associated large vorticity, especially off Peru. Cyclonic eddies moderately dominate the surface layer, and anticyclonic eddies, originating from the nearshore poleward Peru-Chile Undercurrent (PCUC), dominate the subsurface, especially off Chile. The sensitivity of the PCS heat balance to equatorial intra-seasonal oscillations is found to be small. We demonstrate that forcing the regional model with a representative, coarse-resolution global reanalysis wind product has dramatic and deleterious consequences for the oceanic circulation and climate heat balance, the eddy heat flux in particular.     

The life cycle of the intense IOP‐14 storm during CASPII. Part I: Analysis and simulations

Abstract

In this study, a 5‐day life‐cycle of the IOP‐14 storm during CASP II is examined using conventional observations and numerical simulations with a mesoscale version of the Canadian Regional Finite‐Element (RFE) model. Observational analysis reveals that the IOP‐14 storm forms from a lee trough, occurring along a strong baroclinic zone with an intense frontogenetic deformation, that interacts with an upper‐level travelling short‐wave trough across the Canadian Rockies. Then the storm experiences a slow, but nearly steady, growth while traversing the North American continent. It deepens explosively as it moves into the Atlantic Ocean. It appears that i) the enhanced large‐scale baroclinicity due to land‐sea temperature contrasts, ii) the tremendous latent heat release due to the transport of high‐θ_e air from the marine boundary layer, Hi) the decrease of surface drag and iv) the favourable westward tilt of the low with an amplifying trough all contribute to the explosive deepening of the storm.

Two consecutive simulations covering a total of 102 h during the storm development are carried out with a grid size of 50 km. The RFE model reproduces very well the formation of the surface low on the lee side of the Rockies, the track and deepening rates, the explosive development and decay of the storm, and various mesoscale phenomena (e.g., a “bent‐back” warm front, a “T‐bone” thermal pattern, a cold frontal “fracture”, an upper‐level “eye” and warm‐core structures), as verified by conventional observations, satellite imagery, flight‐level and dropsonde data from a research aircraft. It is found from potential vorticity (PV) analysis that the storm reaches its peak intensity as the upper‐level dry PV anomaly, the low‐level moist PV anomaly and surface thermal warmth are vertically superposed. PV inversions reveal that these anomalies contribute about 60%, 30% and 10%, respectively, to the 900‐hPa negative height perturbation. It is shown that the warm‐core structure near the cyclone centre is produced by advection of warmer air ahead of the cold front, rather than by adiabatic warming associated with subsidence.     

Tracer anomaly evolution in the flow field of an isolated eddy

We explore the horizontal stirring of a passive tracer field in the vicinity of an isolated, finite amplitude, quasigeostrophic, β-plane eddy. We consider stirring in the presence of a uniform background gradient of tracer concentration as well as cases in which the tracer anomaly is initially contained within the eddy.This paper reports a survey of phenomenology based upon numerical experiments. We explore the sensitivity of results to physical parameters and to various aspects of the numerical simulation.Under the joint effects of β and of non-linearity, the eddy center migrates. Time dependent effects in a radiated wake provide important stirring mechanisms for the background tracer field. An unexpected, persistent result is a tendency to propel a tendril of tracer westward from near the launch latitude of the eddy. In some cases, the westward penetration of the tendril is even further than the migration of the eddy center.Tracer properties characteristics of the launch site of the eddy tend to be captured and carried with the eddy. However, tracer leaks from the eddy, due to both explicit diffusion-like effects and eddy interaction with background flow features, can result in drawing off of secondary tracer patches.We also calculate trajectories of Lagrangian particles launched in and around the eddy.     

Mean position and variability of the sea surface temperature front east of the grand banks

Abstract

Three years of weekly sea surface temperature maps were analysed to determine the mean position and standard deviation of the front separating the Mixed Water from the North Atlantic Current water to the east of the Grand Banks between 40–50°N and 40–50°W. The front was found to lie along the path of the North Atlantic Current proposed by Dietrich et al. (1975) and to have a standard deviation ranging from 100 to 200 km. The dominant mode of movement at periods of 6 months and longer consisted of a nearly uniform translation. The trajectories of satellite‐tracked drifting buoys were analysed to create a map of the eddy kinetic energy for the region. The high energy ridge of the map generally corresponded to the mean position of the sea surface temperature front.     

Cloud measurements on day 245 of gate

Abstract

On day 245 of GATE (2 September 1974) two lines of convection ‐ north (N) and south (S) ‐ were studied by aircraft stacked vertically, patrolling a north‐south line at longitude 22.85° W of length about 200 km. These lines were part of a complex of convection related to an easterly wave. Photogrammetry shows that the northern line consisted at first of a dense aggregate of small clouds, of width roughly 50 m at cloud base. There were a few tall clouds. No line organization was apparent from the aircraft at 1208 GMT. Fifteen minutes later there was line organization, readily apparent from the DC‐6 aircraft. From study of Electra and DC‐6 records, it appears that a vigorous cold northeasterly surface current initiated line N, and that this was a downdraft originating at altitude about 2.5 km in a mesoscale cloud feature to the north. It appears further that penetrative convection to 14 km followed after the first rain, which moistened air near the surface, and thus lowered cloud bases from about 500 to 350 m.

In overhangs of cloud, anvils to the north of line S, active cloud towers only about 2 km wide were found. The anvils were roughly 2 km thick. Patterns of clouds corresponded to a profile of A/B‐scale divergence; active towers at low levels corresponded to convergence up to the 60 kPa level, and stratus coincided with A/B‐scale divergence aloft at about 50 and 26 kPa.

Statistical analyses from the aircraft films indicated that the area covered by clouds of dark base ‐ signifying concentrated updrafts ‐ was ～5%, much less than that covered by rain at cloud base, ～ 18%. Cloud cover at altitude 4 km was ～ 10%.     

Estimating the baroclinic Rossby radius of deformation in the Sea of Okhotsk

The first baroclinic Rossby radius of deformation (R ₁) in the Sea of Okhotsk is estimated using the hydrological datasets from the World Ocean Atlas (WOA) 2001 and WOA 2013. It is established that the maximum values of R ₁ are observed over the Kuril Basin (18–20 km), and its minimum values (1.5–2 km), over the northern shelf of the Sea of Okhotsk. In the central part of the sea R1 varies from 8 to 10 km. The seasonal variability of R1 for both datasets is characterized by the minima in winter and by the maxima in summer. It was found that on the eastern shelf of Sakhalin Island R ₁ reaches the maximum both in November (～6 km) and in April (～4-5 km). According to the obtained estimates of R ₁, the model grid resolution of 3 to 8 km should be used for the eddy-permitting numerical simulation of circulation in the Sea of Okhotsk, and the model grid resolution from 1.5 to 2 km, for the explicit simulation of mesoscale variability.     

南海热带气旋引起的海表面温度变化特征分析

本文利用热带降雨测量卫星微波成像的微波遥感资料反演的高分辨率海表面温度(SST)资料,分别分析了南海4种典型热带气旋所引起的SST变化特征.结果表明,由于路径、移速和海面热力状况等方面的差异,这4种热带气旋在南海造成的海面降温具有不同的特征.热带气旋Imbudo(0308)属快速移动的西行路径型,在其路径的右侧造成了较大的降温区,降温中心离热带气旋中心约120km;热带气旋Chanchu(0601)为西行北翘型,在其路径两侧分别形成两个降温中心;打转型热带气旋很容易在其打转处形成降温中心,热带气旋Kai-Tak(0004)在海面造成了9.75°C的降温,在其打转处存在一个持续时间很长的冷涡;热带气旋Vongfong(0214)由于其左侧是南海西部夏季冷涡,混合层深度较浅,其作用使得冷涡加强,并在其路径的左侧造成大面积降温区.     

台风“莫拉克”(0908)过台湾岛缓慢西行成因分析

0908号台风"莫拉克"（Morakot）在台湾岛引发了24 h超过1000 mm的强烈降水,与其缓慢西行过岛密切相关。本文利用NCEP-GFS实时分析场资料（0.5°×0.5°）、中央气象局台风资料库关于我国台湾地面气压场资料和中尺度数值模式WRF模拟结果,分析了台风Morakot在台湾岛附近缓慢西行成因。结果表明:（1）西太平洋副热带高压减弱东退、与台风"天鹅"（Goni,0907）的"藤原效应"是Morakot在台湾岛附近移速减慢的环境因素,而台风结构变化也是其缓慢过岛西行的一个主要原因;（2）台风过岛过程中,由于地形作用,Morakot环流内诱生低压活跃,先后或同时出现在岛屿东西两侧,使台风环流出现非对称松散结构;（3）在台湾岛西侧诱生低压中心取代东侧原台风中心形成不连续路径过程中,台风经历了低层环流从分裂到重组,正垂直涡度柱从垂直到倾斜再恢复垂直的变化过程,这是Morakot过台湾岛缓慢西行的一个重要原因;（4）Morakot西行登岛过程中环境引导气流主要是偏南气流,而包含诱生低压的扰动引导气流则为偏东气流。扰动引导气流虽是小量,但其纬向分量占环境引导气流纬向分量的比率从7%增至26%,较好地指示了Morakot的西行趋势,也说明地形诱生低压导致的台风结构变化是其过岛西行和缓慢移动的一个重要原因。     

Interdecadal changes in mesoscale eddy variance in the Gulf of Alaska circulation: Possible implications for the Steller sea lion decline

Abstract

A distinct change in the ocean circulation of the Gulf of Alaska after the 1976–77 climate shift is studied in an eddy‐permitting primitive equation model forced by observed wind stresses from 1951–99. When the Aleutian Low strengthens after 1976–77, strong changes occur in the mean velocity of the Alaskan Stream and in its associated mesoscale eddy field. In contrast, the Alaska Current and the eddy flows in the eastern Gulf remain relatively unchanged after the shift. Since mesoscale eddies provide a possible mechanism for transporting nutrient‐ rich open‐ocean waters to the productive shelf region, the flow of energy through the food web may have been altered by this physical oceanographic change. This climate‐driven mechanism, which has a characteristic eastwest spatial asymmetry, may potentially help to explain changes in forage fish quality in diet diversity of Steller sea lions whose populations have declined precipitously since the mid‐1970s in the western Gulf while remaining stable in the eastern Gulf.     

Impacts of Increased SST Resolution on the North Pacific Storm Track in ERA-Interim

This study examines the artificial influence of increasing the SST resolution on the storm track over the North Pacific in ERA-Interim. Along with the mesoscale oceanic eddies and fronts resolved during the high-resolution-SST period, the low-level storm track strengthens northward, reaching more than 30% of the maximum values in the low-resolution-SST period after removing the influence of ENSO. The mesoscale structure firstly imprints on the marine atmospheric boundary layer, which then leads to changes in turbulent heat flux and near-surface convergence, forcing a secondary circulation into the free atmosphere, strengthening the vertical eddy heat, momentum and specific humidity fluxes, and contributing to the enhancement of the storm track. Results from a high-resolution atmospheric model further indicate the changes in the storm track due to the mesoscale SST and their relationship.     

The cross‐channel flow at the entrance of Lancaster Sound

Abstract

A westward current flows along the northern side of Lancaster Sound and an eastward current flows along the southern side. A cross‐channel flow is commonly observed to link them near the eastern entrance of Lancaster Sound; this flow is modelled assuming inviscid flow and conservation of potential vorticity. It is shown that the westward decrease in depth is sufficient to cause a cross‐channel flow that couples the inflow to the outflow. The modelled cross‐channel flow takes place at a distance inside the entrance that is less than that observed for the surface current. Obviously stratification reduces the coupling of the surface current to the bathymetry. A more realistic result is obtained with the barotropic model if the bottom slope is halved.

An inviscid mean barotropic flow out of the channel is also modelled and found to be concentrated on the southern bank in order to conserve potential vorticity. It seems that barotropic instability and friction would limit the narrowing of the flow.     

秋季川东北一次西南低涡大暴雨分析

利用高空实况实时分析场、FY-2ETBB以及地面加密自动站实况资料,对2014年9月13~14日发生在四川盆地东北部的大暴雨过程进行了分析。结果表明:(1)川东北大暴雨天气过程形成的关键是较为深厚的西南低涡长时间稳定少动,大暴雨区位于北支西风急流南侧和南支东风显著风速带北侧辐散上升运动区的重叠区内,稳定的东高西低的环流形势是这次暴雨发生的大尺度环流特征,地面风向切变的形成对暴雨的产生具有一定的指示意义;(2)在长生命史、稳定的西南低涡内存在多个MCS对流云团的连续生消,MCS云团冷云中心都呈近圆形,移动缓慢,云团发展到成熟阶段,冷云中心TBB值低于-72℃,在减弱的冷云罩中有中小尺度雨团的生成、畸变、分裂的现象发生,在每个强降雨时段内又存在着两个或多个短时强降水峰值;(3)在此次降水过程中重庆沙坪坝站对于广安13日的强降水更具有指示意义,3个时次中沙坪坝站露点曲线和层结曲线之间形成低层暖湿,中高层干冷,有利于强对流天气发生的“喇叭口”形状。      

Impacts of Oceanic Fronts and Eddies in the Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension Region on the Atmospheric General Circulation and Storm Track

This paper reviews the progress in our understanding of the atmospheric response to midlatitude oceanic fronts and eddies,emphasizing the Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension(KOE)region.Oceanic perturbations of interest consist of sharp oceanic fronts,temperature anomalies associated with mesoscale eddies,and to some extent even higher-frequency submesoscale variability.The focus is on the free atmosphere above the boundary layer.As the midlatitude atmosphere is dominated by vigorous transient eddy activity in the storm track,the response of both the time-mean flow and the storm track is assessed.The storm track response arguably overwhelms the mean-flow response and makes the latter hard to detect from observations.Oceanic frontal impacts on the mesoscale structures of individual synoptic storms are discussed,followed by the role of oceanic fronts in maintaining the storm track as a whole.KOE fronts exhibit significant decadal variability and can therefore presumably modulate the storm track.Relevant studies are summarized and intercompared.Current understanding has advanced greatly but is still subject to large uncertainties arising from inadequate data resolution and other factors.Recent modeling studies highlighted the importance of mesoscale eddies and probably even submesoscale processes in maintaining the storm track but confirmation and validation are still needed.Moreover,the atmospheric response can potentially provide a feedback mechanism for the North Pacific climate.By reviewing the above aspects,we envision that future research shall focus more upon the interaction between smaller-scale oceanic processes(fronts,eddies,submesoscale features)and atmospheric processes(fronts,extratropical cyclones etc.),in an integrated way,within the context of different climate background states.     

A Loop Current experiment: Field and remote measurements

An overview of a new comprehensive observational study of the Loop Current (LC) in the eastern Gulf of Mexico that encompassed full-depth and near-bottom moorings, pressure-equipped inverted echo sounders (PIES) and remote sensing is presented. The study array was designed to encompass the LC from the Campeche Bank to the west Florida escarpment. This overview centers about principal findings as they pertain to mesoscale dynamics. Two companion papers provide in-depth analyses. Three LC anticyclonic eddy separation events were observed with good 3D spatial coverage over the 2½ year extent of the field study; the three separations exhibited similar processes after the LC had extended into the eastern Gulf. Large scale (∼300 km wavelength, 40–60 day periods) southward propagating meanders developed on the eastern side of the LC over deep (∼3000 m) water that were the result of baroclinic instability between the upper layer meandering jet and lower layer cyclones and anticyclones. The lower layer was only highly energetic during relatively short (∼2–3 months) intervals just prior to or during eddy detachments because of baroclinic instability. The steepening of the meanders lead to a pinch-off of LC eddies. The deep lower-layer eddies, constrained by the closed topography of the southeastern Gulf, propagated westward across the detachment zone and appear to assist in achieving separation. Small scale (∼50–100 km, periods ∼10 days) frontal eddies, observed on the western side of the LC along the Campeche Bank slope, decay over the deep water of the northern part of an extended LC, and have little influence on lower layer eddies, the east side meanders and the eddy detachment processes.     

Warming of intermediate layers in the upper Oyashio in 1953–2007

Considerable variations in intermediate water characteristics were found in the upper Oyashio based on the oceanographic data from 1953 to 2007. The long-term temperature trend at the 26.75σ_? isopycnal is 0.03°C/year. This temperature trend is considerably higher than that determined earlier for the Sea of Okhotsk intermediate water and much higher than the World Ocean temperature trend. The westward transport of warm and salty water of the Alaskan Stream is most likely to cause the changes in the Kamchatka Current and upper Oyashio. It is established that Aleutian mesoscale eddies move westward from the location of their formation south of the Blizhniy Strait and transport warm water (3.8–4.2°C) in their core (100–600 m, ～26.75σ_?)). As the trajectory of eddies is quite stable, the westward flow of warm and salty intermediate waters considerably influences the upper Oyashio characteristics.     

Simulation of a mesoscale convective system over Northern India: Sensitivity to convection partitioning in a regional NWP model

Simulations of a mesoscale convective system (MCS), which propagated across Northern India on 2nd May 2018 - leading to many fatalities when the gust front knocked down homes and tore apart building roofs - have been performed using the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) Unified Model – Regional (4 km horizontal grid spacing), to evaluate the model’s convective treatments. Though the model captures many of the qualitative and quantitative features, it slightly lags behind the observed MCS organisation and movement, produces lesser precipitation, and lacks the spatial separation between two adjacent organised convective systems in the satellite observations – leading to a faintly offset MCS track. Sensitivity simulations are then performed, for this non-equilibrium MCS case, with different partitioning between parametrized and explicit convection to assess the reliance of the convective treatments on the large-scale environment, as well as to test the notion of a breakdown of convective parametrization at the mesoscale model resolution. Fully parametrized (FP) convection produces even lesser rainfall and are dominated by orographic precipitations along the foot hills of Himalayas with no any trace of the MCS. Fully explicit (FE) convection realistically simulates most of the prominent convective cells and enhance precipitation along the MCS track that agree better with the observations, though the ‘two lobes’ of intense precipitation are not resolved; instead it produces a squall line of precipitation. The FE configuration generates the most vigorous convective updraft, along with a vertical shear that is tilted westward. The simulation with partially parametrized and partially explicit convection resembles the fashion in the FP and FE scenarios, with a transition over the duration of the run from parametrized to explicit precipitation. The results are in line with the notion from previous studies; that the majority of successful explicit simulations of mesoscale organisation are those associated with strong large-scale forcing for convection, wherein resolved vertical motions are sufficient to minimise delays in onset.     

Properties of unstable waves in the lower St Lawrence Estuary

Abstract

The lower St Lawrence Estuary is an interesting case amongst estuaries in that it is wide enough to accommodate the development of mesoscale unstable waves and eddies. These features are generated by the runoff‐driven jet along this body's south shore. We present data yielding estimates of the length, time and velocity scales of these unstable disturbances. To relate these quantities to the dynamics we employ a 2‐layer quasigeos‐trophic instability model featuring realistic lateral shear. All model runs show short time and length scales, e‐folding periods of less than 10 days and wavelengths less than 50 km.