Fluid–foundation interaction in the seismic response of gravity dams

The seismic response of a dam is strongly influenced by its interaction with the water reservoir and the foundation. The hydrodynamic forces in the reservoir are in turn affected by radiation of waves towards infinity, wave absorption at the reservoir bottom, and cross-coupling between the foundation below the dam and the reservoir bottom. The fluid–foundation interaction effect, i.e. the wave absorption along the reservoir bottom, can be accounted for by using either an approximate one-dimensional (1D) wave propagation model or a rigorous analysis of interaction between the flexible soil along the base and the water. The rigorous approach requires enormous computational effort because of (a) cross-coupling between the foundation of the dam and the soil below the reservoir and (b) frequency dependence of the boundary condition along the fluid-foundation interface. The analysis can be simplified by ignoring the cross-coupling and by using the approximate 1D wave propagation model. The effects of each of these two simplifications on the accuracy and computational efficiency of the procedure used for the seismic response analysis of a dam are examined. Analytical results are presented for the complex frequency-response functions as well as the time histories of the response of Pine Flat dam to Taft and E1 Centro ground motions.     

Seismic response of intake towers including dam–tower interaction

The seismic response of the intake–outlet towers has been widely analyzed in recent years. The usual models consider the hydrodynamic effects produced by the surrounding water and the interior water, characterizing the dynamic response of the tower–water–foundation–soil system. As a result of these works, simplified added mass models have been developed. However, in all previous models, the surrounding water is assumed to be of uniform depth and to have infinite extension. Consequently, the considered added mass is associated with only the pressures created by the displacements of the tower itself. For a real system, the intake tower is usually located in proximity to the dam and the dam pressures may influence the equivalent added mass. The objective of this paper is to investigate how the response of the tower is affected by the presence of the dam. A coupled three‐dimensional boundary element‐finite element model in the frequency domain is employed to analyze the tower–dam–reservoir interaction problem. In all cases, the system response is assumed to be linear, and the effect of the internal fluid and the soil–structure interaction effects are not considered. The results suggest that unexpected resonance amplifications can occur due to changes in the added mass for the tower as a result of the tower–dam–reservoir interaction. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Earthquake response of concrete arch dams: a plastic–damage approach

There are several alternatives to evaluate seismic damage‐cracking behavior of concrete arch dams, among which damage theory is the most popular. A more recent option introduced for this purpose is plastic–damage (PD) approach. In this study, a special finite element program coded in 3‐D space is developed on the basis of a well‐established PD model successfully applied to gravity dams in 2‐D plane stress state. The model originally proposed by Lee and Fenves in 1998 relies on isotropic damaged elasticity in combination with isotropic tensile and compressive plasticity to capture inelastic behaviors of concrete in cyclic or dynamic loadings. The present implementation is based on the rate‐dependent version of the model, including large crack opening/closing possibilities. Moreover, with utilizing the Hilber–Hughes–Taylor time integration scheme, an incremental–iterative solution strategy is detailed for the coupled dam–reservoir equations while the damage–dependent damping stress is included. The program is initially validated, and then, it is employed for the main analyses of the Koyna gravity dam in a 3‐D modeling as well as a typical concrete arch dam. The former is a major verification for the further examination on the arch dam. The application of the PD model to an arch dam is more challenging because the governing stress condition is multiaxial, causing shear damage to become more important than uniaxial states dominated in gravity dams. In fact, the softening and strength loss in compression for the damaged regions under multiaxial cyclic loadings affect its seismic safety. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dam-reservoir-massed foundation system and travelling wave along reservoir bottom

In the present paper, effects of non-uniform excitation due to spatially variation of seismic waves under the reservoir bottom on linear and nonlinear responses of arch dams are studied. Foundation is assumed to be massed and infinite elements are utilized to model semi-infinite medium via the far-end boundary of the foundation FE model. A continuum crack propagation model based on the smeared crack approach in 3D space is introduced. Reservoir's water is assumed compressible and the coupled system is solved using the staggered method. As a case study, Amir-Kabir double curvature arch dam in Iran is selected to investigate seismic behavior of the system. Two cases are analyzed in which wave travelling velocities are taken as 650 m/s and infinity. According to the results, non-uniform excitation leads to reduction in seismic response of the system and, in addition, frequency content of the response is different completely in comparison with the system under the uniform excitation.     

Shaking table test on small‐scale retrofitted model of Sefid‐rud concrete buttress dam

Sefid‐rud concrete buttress dam with a height of 106 m was damaged during the devastating 1990 Manjil earthquake. The dam was repaired and strengthened using epoxy grouting of cracks and the installation of post‐tensioned anchors. In a previous study, nonlinear seismic response of the highest monolith with empty reservoir was investigated experimentally through model testing. A geometric‐scaled model of 1:30 was tested on a shaking table to study dynamic cracking of the model. As a result of the similarity between model and prototype cracking pattern, the model was retrofitted according to prototype retrofitting plan after the Manjil earthquake and re‐tested on shaking table to estimate the current safety of the prototype. Experimental test results showed that the post‐tensioning resulted in a significant decrease in dynamic responses in terms of crest displacement and measured strains of the retrofitted model in comparison with its corresponding responses at the first test. No cracking was observed in the retrofitted model when the base motion peak acceleration exceeded a value that was 22% higher than the one caused cracking in the first model. This can be interpreted as the efficiency of prototype post‐tensioning system in evaluating the seismic safety of Sefid‐rud dam. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A method for coupled arch dam‐foundation‐reservoir seismic behaviour analysis

This paper presents a method for coupled arch dam–foundation–reservoir seismic behaviour analysis. The dam is discretized by finite elements (FE) and the foundation and reservoir are discretized by boundary elements (BE). The opening of contraction joints and the spatial variability of the seismic action is taken into account. The study of Pacoima dam by this method is also presented. The computed results show that no cracks were to be expected due to the vibrations induced during the Feb. 9, 1971 San Fernando earthquake. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effective ambient vibration testing for validating numerical models of concrete dams

Ambient vibration tests were conducted on a 56 metre high concrete gravity dam to measure its modal properties for validating a finite element model of the dam–reservoir–foundation system. Excitation was provided by wind, by reservoir water cascading down the spillweir, and by the force of water released through outlet-pipes. Vibrations of the dam were measured using accelerometers, and 3-hour data records were acquired from each location. Data were processed by testing for stationarity and rejecting non-stationary portions before Fourier analysis. Power spectra with low variance were generated from which natural frequencies of the dam were identified clearly and modal damping factors estimated. Modal analysis of the frequency response spectra yielded mode shapes for the six lowest lateral modes of vibration of the dam. The finite element model for the dam was analysed using EACD-3D, and the computed mode shapes and natural frequencies compared well with the measured results. The study demonstrates that ambient vibration testing can offer a viable alternative to forced vibration testing when only the modal properties of a dam are required. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Nonlinear earthquake analysis of high arch dam–water–foundation rock systems

A nonlinear finite element model for earthquake response analysis of arch dam–water–foundation rock systems is proposed in this paper. The model includes dynamic dam–water and dam–foundation rock interactions, the opening of contraction joints, the radiation damping of semi‐unbounded foundation rock, the compressibility of impounded water, and the upstream energy propagating along the semi‐unbounded reservoir. Meanwhile, a new equivalent force scheme is suggested to achieve free‐field input in the model. The effects of the earthquake input mechanism, joint opening, water compressibility, and radiation damping on the earthquake response of the Ertan arch dam (240 m high) in China are investigated using the proposed model. The results show that these factors significantly affect the earthquake response of the Ertan arch dam. Such factors should therefore be considered in the earthquake response analysis and earthquake safety evaluation of high arch dams. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Three‐dimensional models of reservoir sediment and effects on the seismic response of arch dams

The important effects of bottom sediments on the seismic response of arch dams are studied in this paper. To do so, a three‐dimensional boundary element model is used. It includes the water reservoir as a compressible fluid, the dam and unbounded foundation rock as viscoelastic solids, and the bottom sediment as a two‐phase poroelastic domain with dynamic behaviour described by Biot's equations. Dynamic interaction among all those regions, local topography and travelling wave effects are taken into account. The results obtained show the important influence of sediment compressibility and permeability on the seismic response. The former is associated with a general change of the system response whereas the permeability has a significant influence on damping at resonance peaks. The analysis is carried out in the frequency domain considering time harmonic excitation due to P and S plane waves. The time‐domain results obtained by using the Fourier transform for a given earthquake accelerogram are also shown. The possibility of using simplified models to represent the bottom sediment effects is discussed in the paper. Two alternative models for porous sediment are tested. Simplified models are shown to be able to reproduce the effects of porous sediments except for very high permeability values. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dynamics of submerged intake towers including interaction with dam and foundation

The dynamics of a coupled concrete gravity dam-intake tower–reservoir water–foundation rock system is numerically studied considering two hollow slender towers submerged in reservoir of gravity dam. The system is investigated in the frequency-domain using frequency response functions of the dam and the towers, and in the time-domain using time-history seismic analysis under a real earthquake ground motion. The analyzes are separately conducted under horizontal and vertical ground motions. The coupled system is three-dimensionally modeled using finite elements by Eulerian–Lagrangian approach. It is shown that presence of the dam significantly influences the dynamic response of the towers under both horizontal and vertical excitations; however the dam is not affected by the towers. When the dam is present in the model, the water contained inside the towers has different effects if the foundation is rigid, but it alleviates the towers motion if the foundation is flexible. It is concluded that the effects of foundation interaction are of much importance in the response of tall slender towers when they are located near concrete gravity dams.     

Probabilistic evaluation of soil–foundation–structure interaction effects on seismic structural response

Complex seismic behaviour of soil–foundation–structure (SFS) systems together with uncertainties in system parameters and variability in earthquake ground motions result in a significant debate over the effects of soil–foundation–structure interaction (SFSI) on structural response. The aim of this study is to evaluate the influence of foundation flexibility on the structural seismic response by considering the variability in the system and uncertainties in the ground motion characteristics through comprehensive numerical simulations. An established rheological soil‐shallow foundation–structure model with equivalent linear soil behaviour and nonlinear behaviour of the superstructure has been used. A large number of models incorporating wide range of soil, foundation and structural parameters were generated using a robust Monte‐Carlo simulation. In total, 4.08 million time‐history analyses were performed over the adopted models using an ensemble of 40 earthquake ground motions as seismic input. The results of the analyses are used to rigorously quantify the effects of foundation flexibility on the structural distortion and total displacement of the superstructure through comparisons between the responses of SFS models and corresponding fixed‐base (FB) models. The effects of predominant period of the FB system, linear vs nonlinear modelling of the superstructure, type of nonlinear model used and key system parameters are quantified in terms of different probability levels for SFSI effects to cause an increase in the structural response and the level of amplification of the response in such cases. The results clearly illustrate the risk of underestimating the structural response associated with simplified approaches in which SFSI and nonlinear effects are ignored. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Decoupled seismic analysis of an earth dam

The seismic stability of an earth dam is evaluated via the decoupled displacement analysis using the accelerograms obtained by ground response analysis to compute the earthquake-induced displacements. The response analysis of the dam is carried out under both 1D and 2D conditions, incorporating the non-linear soil behaviour through the equivalent linear method. Ten artificial and five real accelerograms were used as input motions and four different depths were assumed for the bedrock.1D and 2D response analyses were in a fair agreement with the exception of the top third of the dam where only a 2D modelling of the problem could ensure that the acceleration field is properly described. The acceleration amplification ratio obtained in the 2D analyses was equal to about 2 in all the cases considered, consistently with data from real case histories.The maximum permanent displacements computed by the sliding block analysis were small, being less than 10% of the service freeboard; a satisfactory performance of the dam can then be envisaged for any of the seismic scenarios considered in the analyses.     

Seismic evaluation of concrete dams via continuum damage models

In this paper a general methodology for the analysis of large concrete dams subjected to seismic excitation is outlined. It is valid both for gravity dams (2D representation) and arch dams (3D representation). The method allows for non-linear material behaviour of the dam, ‘transparent fictitious boundaries’ for dealing properly with in-coming and out-going seismic waves, and an efficient procedure to deal with dam-soil-fluid interaction. The mechanical behaviour of concrete is modelled using an isotropic damage model which allows for tension and compression damage, and exhibits stiffness recovery upon load reversals. Emphasis is placed in the treatment of fluid-structure interaction, regarding both formulation and efficiency aspects. A gravity dam and an arch dam are analysed subjected to artificially generated earthquakes of different intensities, and the results are used to study the degree of (un)safety of the dams.     

Numerical investigation of the response of the Yele rockfill dam during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

In this paper the seismic response of a well-documented Chinese rockfill dam, Yele dam, is simulated and investigated employing the dynamic hydro-mechanically (HM) coupled finite element (FE) method. The objective of the study is to firstly validate the numerical model for static and dynamic analyses of rockfill dams against the unique monitoring data on the Yele dam recorded before and during the Wenchuan earthquake. The initial stress state of the dynamic analysis is reproduced by simulating the geological history of the dam foundation, the dam construction and the reservoir impounding. Subsequently, the predicted seismic response of the Yele dam is analysed, in terms of the deformed shape, crest settlements and acceleration distribution pattern, in order to understand its seismic behaviour, assess its seismic safety and provide indication for the application of any potential reinforcement measures. The results show that the predicted seismic deformation of the Yele dam is in agreement with field observations that suggested that the dam operated safely during the Wenchuan earthquake. Finally, parametric studies are conducted to explore the impact of two factors on the seismic response of rockfill dams, i.e. the permeability of materials comprising the dam body and the vertical ground motion.     

When 4D seismic is not applicable: Alternative monitoring scenarios for the Arab-D reservoir in the Ghawar Field

Ghawar, the largest oilfield in the world, produces oil from the Upper Jurassic Arab‐D carbonate reservoir. The high rigidity of the limestone–dolomite reservoir rock matrix and the small contrast between the elastic properties of the pore fluids, i.e. oil and water, are responsible for the weak 4D seismic effect due to oil production. A feasibility study was recently completed to quantify the 4D seismic response of reservoir saturation changes as brine replaced oil. The study consisted of analysing reservoir rock physics, petro‐acoustic data and seismic modelling. A seismic model of flow simulation using fluid substitution concluded that time‐lapse surface seismic or conventional 4D seismic is unlikely to detect the floodfront within the repeatability of surface seismic measurements. Thus, an alternative approach to 4D seismic for reservoir fluid monitoring is proposed. Permanent seismic sensors could be installed in a borehole and on the surface for passive monitoring of microseismic activity from reservoir pore‐pressure perturbations. Reservoir production and injection operations create these pressure or stress perturbations. Reservoir heterogeneities affecting the fluid flow could be mapped by recording the distribution of epicentre locations of these microseisms or small earthquakes. The permanent borehole sensors could also record repeated offset vertical seismic profiling surveys using a surface source at a fixed location to ensure repeatability. The repeated vertical seismic profiling could image the change in reservoir properties with production.     

Using an airgun array in a land reservoir as the seismic source for seismotectonic studies in northern China: experiments and preliminary results

This paper reports the field setup and preliminary results of experiments utilizing an airgun array in a reservoir in north China for a seismotectonic study. Commonly used in offshore petroleum resource exploration, the airgun source was found to be more useful than a traditional explosive source for large‐scale and long offset land seismic surveys. The airgun array, formed by four 1,500 in³ airguns (a total of 6,000 in³ in volume) was placed at a depth of 6–9 m into the reservoir to generate the pressure impulse. No direct evidence was found that the airgun source adversely affected the fish in the reservoir. The peak ground acceleration recorded on the top of the reservoir dam 100 m away was 17.8 gal in the horizontal direction; this is much less than the designed earthquake‐resistance threshold of 125 gal for this dam. The energy for one shot of this airgun array is about 6.68 MJ, equivalent to firing a 1.7 kg explosive. The seismic waves generated by the airgun source were recorded by receivers of the regional seismic networks and a temporary wide‐angle reflection and refraction profile formed by 100 short‐period seismometers with the maximum source‐receiver offset of 206 km. The seismic wave signature at these long‐offset stations is equivalent to that generated by a traditional blast source in a borehole with a 1,000–2,000 kg explosive. Preliminary results showed clear seismic phases from refractions from the multi‐layer crustal structures in the north China region. Forward modelling using numerical simulation confirms that the seismic arrivals are indeed from lower crustal interfaces. The airgun source is efficient, economical, environmentally friendly and suitable for being used in urbanized areas. It has many advantages over an explosive source for seismotectonic studies such as the high repeatability that is supreme for stacking to improve signal qualities. The disadvantage is that the source is limited to existing lakes or reservoirs, which may restrict experimental geometry.     

Quantitative integration of 3D and 4D seismic impedance into reservoir simulation model updating in the Norne Field

The ultimate goal of reservoir simulation in reservoir surveillance technology is to estimate long-term production forecasting and to plan development and management of petroleum fields. However, maintaining reliable reservoir models which honour available static and dynamic data, involve inherent risks due to the uncertainties in space and time of the distribution of hydrocarbons inside reservoirs. Recent applications have shown that these uncertainties can be reduced by quantitative integration of seismic data into the reservoir modelling workflows to identify which areas and reservoir attributes of the model should be updated. This work aims using seismic data to reduce ambiguity in calibrating reservoir flow simulation model with an uncertain petro-elastic model, proposing a circular workflow of inverted seismic impedance (3D and 4D) and engineering studies, with emphasis on the interface between static and dynamic models. The main contribution is to develop an updating procedure for adjusting reservoir simulation response before using it in the production forecasting and enhance the interpretive capability of reservoir properties. Accordingly, the workflow evaluates consistency of reservoir simulation model and inverted seismic impedance, assisted by production history data, to close the loop between reservoir engineering and seismic domains. The methodology is evaluated in a complex, faulted, sandstone reservoir, the Norne benchmark field, where a significant reservoir behaviour understanding (about the static and dynamic reservoir properties) is obtained towards the quantitative integration of seismic impedance data. This leads to diagnosis of the reservoir flow simulation reliability and generation of an updated simulation model consistent with observed seismic and well production history data, as well as a calibrated petro-elastic model. Furthermore, as Norne Field is a benchmark case, this study can be considered to enrich the discussions over deterministic or probabilistic history matching studies.     

Dynamic behaviour and seismic response of El Infiernillo dam

El Infiernillo, a 145 m high rockfill dam in Mexico built in a narrow V-shaped canyon, was subjected to eight major earthquakes since its construction. In this study, the dynamic dam response is analysed using (i) the recorded November 15, 1975 bedrock-crest acceleration histories and (ii) the results of a 1970 full-scale test conducted by UNAM, in which eight upstream–downstream and longitudinal resonant frequencies and configurations were observed and documented. These observed and seismically induced dynamic responses are compared herein to predictions of two different numerical models of El Infiernillo dam; a newly developed simplified three-dimensional (3D) model, and a 3D finite element model. The dynamic dam response characteristics are assessed, and performance of the employed numerical models is evaluated. It is found that (i) higher modes of vibration had participated significantly in the recorded seismic response and (ii) upstream–downstream response is well represented by the two numerical models employed. Using the simplified model, the September 19, 1985 earthquake non-linear response is computed and shown to compare satisfactorily with its recorded counterpart in the upstream-downstream and vertical directions. The largest computed dynamic accelerations, stresses and strains are found to occur within the upper third of the dam body.     

Seismic monitoring of pressure depletion evaluated for a United Kingdom continental-shelf gas reservoir

The possibility of using 4D seismic data for monitoring pressure depletion in the low‐porosity, tight gas‐bearing Rotliegende sandstones of the UK Southern Gas Basin is investigated. The focus here is on whether fractures in the upper part of the reservoir, known to enhance productivity, can also enhance the time‐lapse seismic response. The study uses laboratory data to evaluate core‐plug stress sensitivity, published data for the stress behaviour of the fractures, followed by petro‐elastic and 4D seismic modelling of both the fractured and unfractured formation. The magnitude of the resultant 4D signatures suggests that production‐induced changes in the unfractured sands are unlikely to be observed except perhaps with highly repeatable time‐lapse surveys. On the other hand, the presence of fractures could render production effects visible in dedicated 4D acquisition or prestack parallel processed data. If present however, the signature will be sporadic, as fractures in the area are known to exist in clusters. The 4D signature may be enhanced further by certain classes of vertical geological variability and also areas of high reservoir pressure. The strongest evidence of depletion is expected to be time‐shifts seen at the base of the Rotliegende reservoir.