鲍玛序列的多解性

鲍玛序列作为浊积岩的识别标志被广泛认可,但随着对深水沉积过程认识的深入,鲍玛序列逐渐被重新认识。近年来对深水沉积物重力流的研究发现:鲍玛序列不是浊流的唯一产物,深水环境中其它沉积过程也可形成鲍玛序列。因此,在野外识别浊积岩的过程中,要慎重使用鲍玛序列进行判别。     

Turbidite depositional architecture across three interconnected deep-water basins on the north-west African margin

ABSTRACT The Moroccan Turbidite System (MTS) on the north‐west African margin extends 1500 km from the head of the Agadir Canyon to the Madeira Abyssal Plain, making it one of the longest turbidite systems in the world. The MTS consists of three interconnected deep‐water basins, the Seine Abyssal Plain (SAP), the Agadir Basin and the Madeira Abyssal Plain (MAP), connected by a network of distributary channels. Excellent core control has enabled individual turbidites to be correlated between all three basins, giving a detailed insight into the turbidite depositional architecture of a system with multiple source areas and complex morphology. Large‐volume (> 100 km³) turbidites, sourced from the Morocco Shelf, show a relatively simple architecture in the Madeira and Seine Abyssal Plains. Sandy bases form distinct lobes or wedges that thin rapidly away from the basin margin and are overlain by ponded basin‐wide muds. However, in the Agadir Basin, the turbidite fill is more complex owing to a combination of multiple source areas and large variations in turbidite volume. A single, very large turbidity current (200–300 km³ of sediment) deposited most of its sandy load within the Agadir Basin, but still had sufficient energy to carry most of the mud fraction 500 km further downslope to the MAP. Large turbidity currents (100–150 km³ of sediment) deposit most of their sand and mud fraction within the Agadir Basin, but also transport some of their load westwards to the MAP. Small turbidity currents (< 35 km³ of sediment) are wholly confined within the Agadir Basin, and their deposits pinch out on the basin floor. Turbidity currents flowing beyond the Agadir Basin pass through a large distributary channel system. Individual turbidites correlated across this channel system show major variations in the mineralogy of the sand fraction, whereas the geochemistry and micropalaeontology of the mud fraction remain very similar. This is interpreted as evidence for separation of the flow, with a sand‐rich, erosive, basal layer confined within the channel system, overlain by an unconfined layer of suspended mud. Large‐volume turbidites within the MTS were deposited at oxygen isotope stage boundaries, during periods of rapid sea‐level change and do not appear to be specifically connected to sea‐level lowstands or highstands. This contrasts with the classic fan model, which suggests that most turbidites are deposited during lowstands of sea level. In addition, the three largest turbidites on the MAP were deposited during the largest fluctuations in sea level, suggesting a link between the volume of sediment input and the magnitude of sea‐level change.     

Quantification of input and compositional variations of calciturbidites in a Middle Triassic basinal succession (Seceda, Dolomites, Southern Alps)

Triassic calciturbidites were studied in a 100-m long core and nearby outcrops of the basinal Buchenstein Formation to determine composition and thickness variations. The quantity of recognized turbidite sediment relative to background sediment changes from 15% (by volume) in the lower part to 60% in the upper part, reflecting the steady progradation of nearby platforms. The composition of the sand fraction of 214 turbidites was point-counted in thin sections. Micrite peloids (average 23%) and lithoclasts (16%) are by far the most dominant constituents. They are interpreted as two different varieties of in-situ precipitated micrite (automicrite), which probably formed under the influence of microbes and constitute the principal building material of the adjacent platforms. Platform-derived skeletal grains amount to only 0.5%. Variations in turbidite composition were quantified using Spearman's rank correlation and cluster analysis. The most significant compositional variations seem to be related to hydrodynamic sorting in the turbidity currents and to the gradual shift from distal to more proximal turbidites in the core as the platforms prograded basinward. Cluster analysis of the 214 samples shows a major subdivision into micrite and sparite dominated turbidites. Clusters associated with micrite-dominated turbidites are enriched in Radiolaria and thin-shelled bivalves, whereas the clusters related to sparite-dominated turbidites show an abundance of lithoclasts. This subdivision seems strongly related to sorting effects in a turbidity current. Point-counting of turbidites in nearby outcrops revealed a lateral variation in composition. Proximal turbidites are sparite-dominated and enriched in lithoclasts, distal portions are chiefly micrite with an open-ocean biota (thin-shelled bivalves, Radiolaria). This differentiation resembles the vertical change in composition of thick turbidite beds, and is attributed to different settling rates of the various grains in the turbidity current. There is no indication that turbidite composition fluctuated significantly under the influence of sea-level fluctuations. This is not surprising because the dominant automicrite facies of the platforms only migrates laterally, but does not change much during sea-level cycles.     

Turbiditic and non-turbiditic mudstone of Cretaceous flysch sections of the East Alps and other basins

Recognition of the occurrence and extent of hemipelagic and pelagic deposits in turbidite sequences is of considerable importance for environmental analysis (palaeodepth, circulation, distance from land, hemipelagic or pelagic versus turbidite sedimentation rates) of ancient basins. Differentiation between the finegrained parts (E-division) of turbidites and the (hemi-) pelagic layers (F-division of turbidite-pelagite alternations) is facilitated in basins where carbonate turbidites were deposited below the carbonate compensation depth (CCD) such as the Flysch Zone of the East Alps but may be difficult in other basins where less compositional contrast is developed between the fine-grained turbidites and hemipelagites. This difficulty pertains particularly in Palaeozoic and older basins. For Late Mesozoic-Cenozoic oceans with a relatively deep calcite compensation level three other types of turbidite basins may be distinguished for which differentiation becomes increasingly more difficult in the sequence from (1) to (3): (1) terrigenous turbidite basins above the CCD; (2) carbonate turbidite basins above the CCD; (3) terrigenous turbidite basins below the CCD. Criteria and methods useful for the differentiation between turbiditic and hemipelagic mudstone in the Upper Cretaceous of the Flysch Zone of the East Alps include calcium carbonate content, colour, sequential analysis, distribution of bioturbation, and microfaunal content. In modern turbidite basins clay mineral content, organic matter content, plant fragments, and grain-size (graded bedding, maximum grain diameter) have reportedly also been used as criteria (see Table 3). Deposition of muddy sediment by turbidity currents on weakly sloping sea bottoms such as the distal parts of deep-sea fans or abyssal plains is not only feasible but may lead to the accumulation of thick layers. Contrary to earlier speculation it can be explained by the hydrodynamic theory of turbidity currents, if temperature differences between the turbidity current and the ambient deep water as well as relatively high current velocities for the deposition of turbiditic muds (an order of magnitude higher on mud surfaces than commonly assumed) are taken into consideration. The former add to the capacity of turbidity currents to carry muddy sediment without creating a driving force on a low slope.     

新疆北部泥盆系火山碎屑浊积岩层序结构特征及其地质意义

新疆北部泥盆系火山碎屑浊积岩包括粗粒、中粒和细粒火山碎屑浊积岩三大类,后者尚可进一步划分为粉砂质、泥质和生物成因浊积岩。岩性上以含火山物质有别于陆屑、钙屑浊积岩。在火山碎屑浊积岩中识别出20种层序结构,它们可归并为完整鲍马序列、连续不完整鲍马序列和间断不完整鲍马序列三类。文章认为:间断不完整鲍马序列是多个浊流事件或浊流事件与其他事件相互叠加、干扰的产物,为活动构造环境,特别是火山岛弧海中非单源、单方向浊流沉积或火山碎屑浊积岩或细粒浊积岩的重要特征。     

Turbidite Megabeds in an Oceanic Rift Valley Recording Jökulhlaups of Late Pleistocene Glacial Lakes of the Western United States

Escanaba Trough is the southernmost segment of the Gorda Ridge and is filled by sandy turbidites locally exceeding 500 m in thickness. New results from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Sites 1037 and 1038 that include accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) 14C dates and revised petrographic evaluation of the sediment provenance, combined with high-resolution seismic-reflection profiles, provide a lithostratigraphic framework for the turbidite deposits. Three fining-upward units of sandy turbidites from the upper 365 m at ODP Site 1037 can be correlated with sediment recovered at ODP Site 1038 and Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP) Site 35. Six AMS 14C ages in the upper 317 m of the sequence at Site 1037 indicate that average deposition rates exceeded 10 m/k.yr. between 32 and 11 ka, with nearly instantaneous deposition of one approximately 60-m interval of sand. Petrography of the sand beds is consistent with a Columbia River source for the entire sedimentary sequence in Escanaba Trough. High-resolution acoustic stratigraphy shows that the turbidites in the upper 60 m at Site 1037 provide a characteristic sequence of key reflectors that occurs across the floor of the entire Escanaba Trough. Recent mapping of turbidite systems in the northeast Pacific Ocean suggests that the turbidity currents reached the Escanaba Trough along an 1100-km-long pathway from the Columbia River to the west flank of the Gorda Ridge. The age of the upper fining-upward unit of sandy turbidites appears to correspond to the latest Wisconsinan outburst of glacial Lake Missoula. Many of the outbursts, or j?kulhlaups, from the glacial lakes probably continued flowing as hyperpycnally generated turbidity currents on entering the sea at the mouth of the Columbia River.     

Features of Sandy Debris Flows of the Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin and Its Oil and Gas Exploration Significance

Sandy debris flow is a new genetic type of sand bodies, which has gained much attention in recent years and its corresponding theory is proved to be a significant improvement and even partial denial to the “Bouma Sequence” and “turbidite fan” deep-water sedimentary theories to some point. Oil exploration researchers are highly concerned with sandy debris flows for its key role in controlling oil and gas accumulation processes. In this article, by applying sandy debris flows theory and combining a lot work of core, outcrop observation and analysis plus seismic profile interpretation, we recognized three types of sedimentary gravity flows that are sandy debris flows, classic turbidites and slumping rocks in chang-6 member of Yanchang Formation in the deep-water area of central Ordos Basin. Among the three types, the sandy debris flows are the most prominent and possesses the best oil bearing conditions. On the contrary, the classic turbidites formed by turbidity currents are limited in distribution; therefore, previous Yanchang Formation deep-water sedimentary studies have exaggerated the importance of turbidite currents deposition. Further study showed that the area distribution of deep water gravity flow sand bodies in Yanchang Formation were controlled by the slope of the deep-water deposits and the flows had vast distribution, huge depth and prevalent advantages for oil forming, which make it one of the most favorable new areas for Ordos Basin prospecting.     

Subaqueous liquefied and fluidized sediment flows and their deposits

A clear distinction must be made between liquefied and fluidized systems. In liquefied beds and flows, the solids settle downward through the fluid, displacing it upward, whereas, in fluidized beds, the fluid moves upward through the solids, which are temporarily suspended without net downward movement. Many recent references to fluidized sediment gravity flows refer, in fact, to flows of liquefied debris. Most uniformly liquefied beds of well-sorted sand- or gravel-sized sediment will resediment as simple two-layer systems. Liquefied flows can originate either by liquefaction followed by failure, as in many retrogressive flow slides, or by failure followed by liquefaction, as in the case of some slumps. Empirical and theoretical estimates of flow velocity, thickness, and travel distance suggest that natural laminar liquefied flows of fine-grained sand will generally resediment after moving a kilometre or less. Laminar flows of coarse-grained sand will resediment after moving only a few metres. Grain dispersive pressure is thought to be of little significance in the development or maintenance of liquefied flows. Many surficial submarine sand beds are apparently susceptible to liquefaction, including submarine canyon and continental rise deposits. Within submarine canyons and narrow fjords, steep slopes and channels promote the evolution of liquefied flows from slumps by liquefaction after failure and of high density turbidity currents from liquefied flows by the development of turbulence. Upon moving into the lower parts of submarine canyons or into proximal fan channels, liquefied flows will resediment and high density turbidity currents will tend to decline to flows transitional between liquefied flows and turbidity currents. The liquefied, coarser detritus within such transitional flows will be deposited while finer-grained debris will remain in suspension and continue downslope as dilute turbidity currents. Resedimentation of the liquefied portions of such flows may be responsible for the deposition of the A-subdivision of many turbidites and many thick, structureless ‘proximal turbidites’ or ‘fluxoturbidites’. Similar units can originate by liquefaction of the traction deposits of normal turbidity currents. Fluidized flows are probably uncommon, thin, and, where formed, originate through fluidization of the fine-grained tops of liquefied graded beds.     

Deposits of depletive high-density turbidity currents: a flume analogue of bed geometry, structure and texture

Flume experiments were performed to study the flow properties and depositional characteristics of high‐density turbidity currents that were depletive and quasi‐steady to waning for periods of several tens of seconds. Such currents may serve as an analogue for rapidly expanding flows at the mouth of submarine channels. The turbidity currents carried up to 35 vol.% of fine‐grained natural sand, very fine sand‐sized glass beads or coarse silt‐sized glass beads. Data analysis focused on: (1) depositional processes related to flow expansion; (2) geometry of sediment bodies generated by the depletive flows; (3) vertical and horizontal sequences of sedimentary structures within the sediment bodies; and (4) spatial trends in grain‐size distribution within the deposits. The experimental turbidity currents formed distinct fan‐shaped sediment bodies within a wide basin. Most fans consisted of a proximal channel‐levee system connected in the downstream direction to a lobe. This basic geometry was independent of flow density, flow velocity, flow volume and sediment type, in spite of the fact that the turbidity currents of relatively high density were different from those of relatively low density in that they exhibited two‐layer flow, with a low‐density turbulent layer moving on top of a dense layer with visibly suppressed large‐scale turbulence. Yet, the geometry of individual morphological elements appeared to relate closely to initial flow conditions and grain size of suspended sediment. Notably, the fans changed from circular to elongate, and lobe and levee thickness increased with increasing grain size and flow velocity. Erosion was confined to the proximal part of the leveed channel. Erosive capacity increased with increasing flow velocity, but appeared to be constant for turbidity currents of different grain size and similar density. Structureless sediment filled the channel during the waning stages of the turbidity currents laden with fine sand. The adjacent levee sands were laminated. The massive character of the channel fills is attributed to rapid settling of suspension load and associated suppression of tractional transport. Sediment bypassing prevailed in fan channels composed of very fine sand and coarse silt, because channel floors remained fully exposed until the end of the experiments. Lobe deposits, formed by the fine sand‐laden, high‐density turbidity currents, contained massive sand in the central part grading to plane parallel‐laminated sand towards the fringes. The depletive flows produced a radial decrease in mean grain size in the lobe deposits of all fans. Vertical trends in grain size comprised inverse‐to‐normal grading in the levees and in the thickest part of the lobes, and normal grading in the channel and fringes of the fine sandy fans. The inverse grading is attributed to a process involving headward‐directed transport of relatively fine‐grained and low‐concentrated fluid at the level of the velocity maximum of the turbidity current. The normal grading is inferred to denote the waning stage of turbidity‐current transport.     

Sustained turbidity currents and their interaction with debrite-related topography; Labuan Island, offshore NW Borneo, Malaysia

The Temburong Fm (Early Miocene), Labuan Island, offshore NW Borneo, was deposited in a lower-slope to proximal basin-floor setting, and provides an opportunity to study the deposits of sustained turbidity currents and their interaction with debrite-related topography. Two main gravity-flow facies are identified; (i) slump-derived debris-flow deposits (debrites) — characterised by ungraded silty mudstones in beds 1.5 to > 60 m thick which are rich in large (> 5 m) lithic clasts; and (ii) turbidity current deposits (turbidites) — characterised by medium-grained sandstone in beds up to 2 m thick, which contain structureless (T_a) intervals alternating with planar-parallel (T_b) and current-ripple (T_c) laminated intervals. Laterally discontinuous, cobble-mantled scours are also locally developed within turbidite beds. Based on these characteristics, these sandstones are interpreted to have been deposited by sustained turbidity currents. The cobble-mantled scours indicate either periods of intense turbidity current waxing or individual flow events. The sustained turbidity currents are interpreted to have been derived from retrogressive collapse of sand-rich mouth bars (breaching) or directly from river effluent (hyperpycnal flow). Analysis of the stratal architecture of the two facies indicates that routing of the turbidity currents was influenced by topographic relief developed at the top of the underlying debrite. In addition, turbidite beds are locally eroded at the base of an overlying debrite, possibly due to clast-related substrate ‘ploughing’ during the latter flow event. This study highlights the difficulty in constraining the origin of sustained turbidity currents in ancient sedimentary sequences. In addition, this study documents the importance large debrites may have in generating topography on submarine slopes and influencing routing of subsequent turbidity currents and the geometry of their associated deposits.     

Distinguishing between fine-grained turbidites and contourites on the Nova Scotian deep water margin

Review of the criteria which have been proposed for distinguishing between the deposits of turbidity currents and bottom currents in deep water sedimentation shows no general agreement on their validity. It is important to compare finegrained turbidites and contourites, to recognize that different turbidity current and bottom current mechanisms exist, and that their deposits may be closely inter-bedded in a continental rise environment. Interbedded turbidites and contourites have been recognized in cores from the deep-water margin off Nova Scotia. The most useful criteria for distinguishing between the two deposits were found to be: (1) fining and sorting trends: perpendicular or parallel to the contours; (2) marked textural differences between interbedded turbidites and contourites indicating differences in source and transport distance; (3) mineralogy and textural composition: regional patterns indicating transport perpendicular or parallel to the contours; (4) grain fabric: indication of downslope or along-slope transport at the time of final deposition; (5) sedimentary structures: turbidites show a structural sequence and evidence of rapid burial; contourites are bioturbated and contain irregular lag concentrations of biogenic sand. Other criteria include grain-size parameters, and the regional setting, distribution and depositional rate of the various facies. With due care these criteria can be applied to other regions. Previously used characteristics of silt-laminae abundance, layer thickness, heavy mineral cross lamination, sorting, and the nature of bed contacts are not applicable to fine-grained turbidites and contourites. Compositional criteria depend on regional features.     

Distinctive erosional and depositional structures formed at a canyon mouth: A lower Pleistocene deep‐water succession in the Kazusa forearc basin on the Boso Peninsula,Japan

The canyon mouth is an important component of submarine‐fan systems and is thought to play a significant role in the transformation of turbidity currents. However, the depositional and erosional structures that characterize canyon mouths have received less attention than other components of submarine‐fan systems. This study investigates the facies organization and geometry of turbidites that are interpreted to have developed at a canyon mouth in the early Pleistocene Kazusa forearc basin on the Boso Peninsula, Japan. The canyon‐mouth deposits have the following distinctive features: (i) The turbidite succession is thinner than both the canyon‐fill and submarine‐fan successions and is represented by amalgamation of sandstones and pebbly sandstones as a result of bypassing of turbidity currents. (ii) Sandstone beds and bedsets show an overall lenticular geometry and are commonly overlain by mud drapes, which are massive and contain fewer bioturbation structures than do the hemipelagic muddy deposits. (iii) The mud drapes have a microstructure characterized by aggregates of clay particles, which show features similar to those of fluid‐mud deposits, and are interpreted to represent deposition from fluid mud developed from turbidity current clouds. (iv) Large‐scale erosional surfaces are infilled with thick‐bedded to very thick‐bedded turbidites, which show lithofacies quite similar to those of the surrounding deposits, and are considered to be equivalent to scours. (v) Concave‐up erosional surfaces, some of which face in the upslope direction, are overlain by backset bedding, which is associated with many mud clasts. (vi) Tractional structures, some of which are equivalent to coarse‐grained sediment waves, were also developed, and were overlain locally by mud drapes, in association with mud drape‐filled scours, cut and fill structures and backset bedding. The combination of these outcrop‐scale erosional and depositional structures, together with the microstructure of the mud drapes, can be used to identify canyon‐mouth deposits in ancient deep‐water successions.     

Sedimentary facies of the Nova Scotian upper and middle continental slope, offshore eastern Canada

A detailed survey of the upper and middle Nova Scotian continental slope at 42°50′N and 63°30′W indicates a complex morphology dominated by mass movements on various scales and an immature turbidity current channel. The range of sediment facies is diverse including hemipelagic and turbidite muds, turbidite sands and gravelly sandy muds of debris flow origin. Deformed units, interpreted as slump deposits are also observed. Several facies associations, related to discrete morphological environments, are recognized. Thick turbidite sand units with minor intervening mud beds are characteristic of the high-relief uppermost slope and channel margin. Thinner turbidite sands, deformed slump beds and various mud facies are associated with small-scale, hummocky mid-slope topography. Sand beds are more abundant in the depressions than on intervening hummocks indicating the preferred transport paths of small turbidity currents. At the lower end of the main turbidity current channel, frequent turbidite sand beds with relatively minor mud beds are deposited on a depositional lobe. In areas unaffected by mass movements, alternating bioturbated mud and sandy muds make up the core sequences. A local model of sedimentation is proposed for this area and illustrates that simple models of continental slope sedimentation only apply to a limited range of settings.     

Submarine-fan deposited sandstone and rudite in a mid-Cenozoic interarc basin in Maewo, Vanuatu (New Hebrides)

The volcaniclastic, Lower Sarava Formation of north-eastern Maewo was deposited in a Late Oligocene-Early Miocene deep sea fan environment. Eight lithofacies can be recognized from a westward-trending, deep-sea fan which prograded at a depth of >4.25 km within an extinct interarc basin. These lithofacies include massive spilite-rich rudite, graded coarse rudite-arenite, graded fine rudite-arenite, intraformational rudite, brown and grey siltstone, minor calcarenite and a lithofacies composed of turbidites with Bouma sequences. The sediment was essentially derived from the Vitiaz palaeoarc to the east. Non-calcareous red and green siltstone and minor airfall tuff was deposited distal to the arenite and rudite, in areas, or during periods, of slower sedimentation. Slightly more than half of the lower part of the Sarava Formation is represented by massive rudite, graded coarse rudite-arenite, and graded fine rudite-arenite. These deposits, and some of the calcarenites and massive arenites. were deposited from decelerating high density turbidity currents. Some of the thicker rudite-arenites may have been induced by tsunamis. Classical turbidites deposited, perhaps, from low density turbidity currents are rare. The petrography of igneous clasts indicates that Late Oligocene-Early Miocene volcanism on the Vitiaz palaeoarc was largely basaltic-andesitic but there were some dacitic eruptions.     

碎屑流与浊流的流体性质及沉积特征研究进展

受浊流沉积模式(即鲍马序列和浊积扇模式)的驱动和浊积岩思维定势的影响,自1970s浊流与浊积岩的概念逐渐扩大,特别是通过"高密度浊流"术语的引入,以及将水下浊流与陆上河流的错误类比,使得一部分碎屑流与底流的沉积被认为是浊积岩。随着现代观测设备的应用以及详细的岩芯观察,碎屑流(特别是砂质碎屑流)和浊流被重新认识。浊流是一种具牛顿流变性质和紊乱状态的沉积物重力流,其沉积物支撑机制是湍流。碎屑流是一种具塑性流变性质和层流状态的沉积物重力流,其沉积物支撑机制主要是基质强度和颗粒间的摩擦强度。浊流沉积具特征的正粒序韵律结构,底部为突变接触而顶部为渐变接触;碎屑流沉积一般具上、下两层韵律结构,即下部发育具平行碎屑结构的层流段,上部发育具块状层理的"刚性"筏流段。但当碎屑流被周围流体整体稀释改造且改造不彻底时,强碎屑流可变为中—弱碎屑流,相应自下而上可形成逆—正粒序的沉积韵律结构,其中发育有呈漂浮状的石英颗粒和泥质撕裂屑等碎屑颗粒,明显区别于浊流沉积单一的正粒序韵律结构特征。碎屑流沉积顶、底部均为突变接触。浊流的沉积模式为简单的具平坦盆底的坡底模式,而碎屑流则为复杂的斜坡模式。     

Numerical simulation of turbidity current flow and sedimentation: II. Results and geological applications

A process-based, forward computer model of turbidity current flow and sedimentation, termed the TCFS model, has been developed to trace the downslope evolution of individual turbidity flows. Details of the model itself have been presented in a preceding paper. We here outline a series of tests of the TGFS model. The sensitivity tests of the TCFS model to general geological controls reveal the quantitative relationship between these controls and the behaviour of turbidity flows and the geometry and textural features of the resulting turbidites. Experimental turbidity currents on relatively steep slopes accelerate more rapidly and reach higher velocities than those on gentle slopes. Flows with larger initial volumes have higher initial velocities, travel further downslope, and form beds of greater thickness and downslope extent than smaller flows. Experimental high-concentration flows with suspended-sediment concentrations of 25% accelerate more rapidly and reach higher downslope velocities than dilute flows with 5% suspended sediment. The higher velocities and enhanced hindered-settling effects of the high-concentration flows lead to much greater transport distances and reduced vertical and lateral sediment size grading in the resulting turbidites. Beds formed by experimental high-concentration flows are massive or show coarse-tail grading whereas beds formed by low-concentration flows show distribution-grading. Experimental flows fed by coarse sediment sources tend to deposit the bulk of their suspended sediment loads on the proximal slope, resulting in more rapid flow deceleration and sedimentation than flows fed by silt-rich, fine-grained sediment sources. Turbidites formed by coarse-sediment flows tend to have a wedge-shaped geometry, with low downslope extent and high surface relief, whereas turbidites formed by fine-sediment flows tend to have a tabular geometry, with greater downslope extent and lower surface relief. A specific geological test of the TCFS model is based on studies of modern turbidity currents in Bute Inlet, British Columbia, Canada. With the input initial and boundary conditions estimated from Bute Inlet, the model predicts the downslope velocity evolution of turbidity currents comparable to those of modern and ancient turbidity flows measured in Bute Inlet. Model-calculated vertical and downslope grain-size properties of turbidites are similar to those exhibited by surface and cored Bute Inlet turbidites. Model flows tend to decelerate more rapidly than some stronger turbidity currents in the Bute Inlet system, and model beds tend to decrease in grain-size downslope more rapidly than observed bottom sediments. This is probably because the TCFS model flows lacked clay, which is abundant in Bute Inlet; they do not fully simulate turbulent mixing of suspended sediments; and they better represent the unsteady, depositional stage of turbidity-currents than the preceding stage of more-or-less steady-flow conditions. These tests demonstrate that the TCFS model provides a semi-quantitative method to study the growth patterns of submarine turbidite systems. It can serve as a predictive tool for analysing the facies architecture of ancient turbidite systems through simulating multi-depositional events by improving its erosion function, and the compatibility between its numerical components.     

Bedload transport and bed resistance associated with density and turbidity currents

Turbidity currents in the ocean are driven by suspended sediment. Yet results from surveys of the modern sea floor and turbidite outcrops indicate that they are capable of transporting as bedload and depositing particles as coarse as cobble sizes. While bedload cannot drive turbidity currents, it can strongly influence the nature of the deposits they emplace. This paper reports on the first set of experiments which focus on bedload transport of granular material by density underflows. These underflows include saline density flows, hybrid saline/turbidity currents and a pure turbidity current. The use of dissolved salt is a surrogate for suspended mud which is so fine that it does not settle out readily. Thus, all the currents can be considered to be model turbidity currents. The data cover four bed conditions: plane bed, dunes, upstream‐migrating antidunes and downstream‐migrating antidunes. The bedload transport relation obtained from the data is very similar to those obtained for open‐channel flows and, in fact, is fitted well by an existing relation determined for open‐channel flows. In the case of dunes and downstream‐migrating antidunes, for which flow separation on the lee sides was observed, form drag falls in a range that is similar to that due to dunes in sand‐bed rivers. This form drag can be removed from the total bed shear stress using an existing relation developed for rivers. Once this form drag is subtracted, the bedload data for these cases collapse to follow the same relation as for plane beds and upstream‐migrating antidunes, for which no flow separation was observed. A relation for flow resistance developed for open‐channel flows agrees well with the data when adapted to density underflows. Comparison of the data with a regime diagram for field‐scale sand‐bed rivers at bankfull flow and field‐scale measurements of turbidity currents at Monterey Submarine Canyon, together with Shields number and densimetric Froude number similarity analyses, provide strong evidence that the experimental relations apply at field scale as well.     

Morphology and Quaternary sedimentation of the Mozambique Fan and environs,southwestern Indian Oceans*

Most of the Quaternary sediments of the Mozambique Fan have been derived from Africa-Madagascar and deposited by turbidity currents in Pleistocene time. Currents caused by movement of the Antarctic Bottom Water also played a significant role in reworking and redepositing sediments along the marginal areas of the fan. The inner or upper Mozambique Fan is characterized by a single, leveed valley. Due to the effects of the Coriolis force, the natural levees to the east of the valley (left, looking downstream) are higher and contain more terrigenous sediments than those to the west of the valley. The sea floor to the west of the valley returns regular hyperbolic echoes as seen on 3·5 kHz echograms, whereas to the east of the valley, the sea floor is relatively smooth. The sediments on the valley floor are coarse-grained (with median grain up to 2 mm) and poorly sorted, and occur often as massive turbidites, interbedded with hemipelagic sediments. Away from the valley, both to the east and the west, the terrigenous sediments are relatively fine-grained and have been deposited as overbank turbidite sequences. We estimate the maximum velocities of the channelized turbidity currents in the upper fan to have been 8–32 ms^?1. The middle fan has several distributary channels with no levees and has a relatively flat sea floor, characterized by lack of acoustic penetration. Thick, sheet-like, turbidite sand beds, deposited primarily by unchannelized turbidity currents, characterize the middle fan. The middle fan grades, towards the margins, into the outer (lower) fan which is relatively free of channels, has good acoustic penetration and contains hemipelagic and pelagic sediments, and thin, fine-sand turbidite and/or contourite beds. A wide zone of sediment waves, formed from the reworking of the turbidity current-fed sediments by the Antarctic Bottom Water, forms part of the outer fan.     

济阳坳陷牛庄洼陷沙三段三角洲前缘浊积岩特征

根据地质、测井、地震资料的综合分析,对济阳坳陷牛庄洼陷沙河街组三段三角洲前缘的浊积岩特征进行了研究。结果表明,该区存在砂质浊积岩体和细粒浊积岩体两种浊流沉积物。其中砂质浊积岩体粒度较细、结构成熟度和成分成熟度较低,结构和构造均反映了砂体具有滑塌再沉积的特点,可用Bouma序列来描述,常发育CDE,BCD,ABCD型浊流组合。砂质浊积岩体可进一步划为有根式和无根式两类。有根式砂体常呈扇形,可分为内扇槽道、中扇辫状水道、水道间、水道前缘和外扇无水道五种微相;无根式砂体常呈片状、舌状,可分为中心微相和边缘微相两个相带。细粒浊积岩属于低密度流的产物,不能用Bouma序列来解释,主要发育递变纹层泥岩和不均匀的块状泥岩两种细粒浊积岩。根据两类沉积物的沉积特征,建立了该区三角洲一浊积岩体综合沉积模式。论述了三角洲前缘浊积岩的成因及石油地质意义。     

Sedimentary architecture beneath lakes subjected to storms: Control by turbidity current bypass and turbidite armouring,interpreted from ground‐penetrating radar images

Turbidites within Holocene lacustrine sediment cores occur worldwide and are valued deposits that record a history of earthquakes or storms. Without sedimentary architecture, however, interpretation of the cause, provenance and behaviour of their parent turbidity currents are speculative. Here, these interpretations are made from two‐dimensional ground‐penetrating radar images of ‘shore to shore’ architecture beneath three, previously cored lakes within the low seismicity New England (USA ) region. Shallow depths, low water and sediment conductivities, and signal sensitivity to density contrasts uniquely provided up to 30 m of sediment signal penetration. Core comparisons and signal analysis reveal that most horizons represent multidecimetre‐thick clusters of Holocene turbidites, which are denser than their organic‐rich silt matrix. Some horizons also represent erosional unconformities and sediment bypass interfaces. The key, common, architectural consequences of turbidity current activity include limited foreset progradation, conformably pinched or unconformable layers of organic‐rich sediment onlapped against slopes beneath 5 to 6 m of water, and mounded stratified sediments beneath rises. These features indicate that turbidity currents repeatedly bypassed the same slope without deposition and regardless of dip, and then simultaneously armoured and bypassed inter‐turbidite sediment along rises and basins to provide basinward, generally age‐conformable accumulation. The mounding precludes significant basinward focusing. Variable horizon amplitude suggests metre‐scale changes in armouring density. Unconformities localized near breaks in dip beneath slopes suggest erosive hydraulic jumps. One lake shows evidence of historically maintained channels associated with specific deltas. Shelf strata indicating inland current generation, similar key architecture in other, uncored lakes, countable, lake‐wide horizons, and absent slumps, slides and faults are consistent with storm‐driven turbidity currents, and with previous, core‐based conclusions that severe, Holocene storms were episodic throughout this region. The results generalize marine bypass and armouring to lacustrine settings, and so probably occur worldwide in lakes subject only to storms, including lakes where ground‐penetrating radar may locate core sites.