Dissociation of gas hydrates by hydrocarbon migration and accumulation-derived slope failures: An example from the South China Sea

The mechanism of slope failure associated with overpressure that is caused by hydrocarbon migration and accumulation remains unclear. High-resolution seismic data and gas hydrate drilling data collected from the Shenhu gas hydrate field (site SH5) offer a valuable opportunity to study the relations between submarine slope failure and hydrocarbon accumulation and flow that is associated with a ～2 km-diameter gas chimney developed beneath site SH5 where none gas hydrates had been recovered by drilling and sampling despite the presence of distinct bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs) and favorable gas hydrate indication. The mechanism of submarine slope failure resulted from buoyancy extrusion and seepage-derived deformation which were caused by overpressure from a ～1100 m-high gas column in a gas chimney was studied via numerical simulation. The ～9.55 MPa overpressure caused by hydrocarbons that migrated through the gas chimney and then accumulated beneath subsurface gas hydrate-bearing impermeable sediments. This may have resulted in a submarine slope failure, which disequilibrated the gas hydrate-bearing zone and completely decomposed the gas hydrate once precipitated at site SH5. Before the gas hydrate decomposition, the largely impermeable sediments overlying the gas chimney may have undergone a major upward deformation due to the buoyancy extrusion of the overpressure in the gas chimney, and slope failure was initiated from plastic strain of the sediments and reduced internal strength. Slope failure subsequently resulted in partial gas hydrate decomposition and sediment permeability increase. The pressurized gas in the gas chimney may have diffused into the overlying sediments controlled by seepage-derived deformation, causing an effective stress reduction at the base of the sediments and significant plastic deformation. This may have formed a new cycle of submarine slope failure and finally the total gas hydrate dissociation. The modeling results of buoyancy extrusion and seepage-derived deformation of the overpressure in the gas chimney would provide new understanding in the development of submarine slope failure and the link between slope failure and gas hydrate accumulation and dissociation.     

Multi-factor sensitivity analysis on the stability of submarine hydrate-bearing slope

There are many factors affecting the instability of the submarine hydrate-bearing slope (SHBS), and the interaction with hydrate is very complicated. In this paper, the mechanical mechanism of the static liquefaction and instability of submarine slope caused by the dissociation of natural gas hydrate (NGH) resulting in the rapid increase of pore pressure of gas hydrate-bearing sediments (GHBS) and the decrease of effective stress are analyzed based on the time series and type of SHBS. Then, taking the typical submarine slope in the northern South China Sea as an example, four important factors affecting the stability of SHBS are selected, such as the degree of hydrate dissociation, the depth of hydrate burial, the thickness of hydrate, and the depth of seawater. According to the principle of orthogonal method, 25 orthogonal test schemes with 4 factors and 5 levels are designed and the safety factors of submarine slope stability of each scheme are calculated by using the strength reduction finite element method. By means of the orthogonal design range analysis and the variance analysis, sensitivity of influential factors on stability of SHBS are obtained. The results show that the degree of hydrate dissociation is the most sensitive, followed by hydrate burial depth, the thickness of hydrate and the depth of seawater. Finally, the concept of gas hydrate critical burial depth is put forward according to the influence law of gas hydrate burial depth, and the numerical simulation for specific submarine slope is carried out, which indicates the existence of critical burial depth.     

Stability analysis of submarine slopes in the area of the test production of gas hydrate in the South China Sea

In this paper, the mechanical properties of gas hydrate-bearing sediments (GHBS) were summarized and the instability mechanism of submarine hydrate-bearing slope (SHBS) was analyzed under the background of the test production of gas hydrate in the northern part of the South China Sea. The strength reduction finite element method (SRFEM) was introduced to the stability analysis of submarine slopes for the safety of the test production. Two schemes were designed to determine the physical and mechanical parameters of four target wells. Through the division of the hydrate dissociation region and the design of four working conditions, the range and degree of hydrate dissociation at different stages during the test production were simulated. Based on the software ABAQUS, 37 FEM models of SHBS were set up to analyze and assess the stability of the submarine slopes in the area of the test production. Necessary information such as safety factors, deformation, and displacement were obtained at different stages and under different working conditions. According to the calculation results, the submarine slope area is stable before the test production, and the safety factors almost remains the same during and after the test production. All these indicate that the test production has no obvious influence on the area of the test production and the submarine slopes in the area are stable during and after the test production.     

考虑天然气水合物上覆层不排水抗剪强度深度变化的海底斜坡稳定性影响分析

天然气水合物分解可以诱发海底斜坡失稳对海底工程设施产生造成破坏影响。因此,海底斜坡稳定性状态评价对海底工程设施选址、安全运行具有重要意义。文章根据南海北部神狐海域水合物富集区工程地质特征,采用有限元强度折减法分析了斜坡几何参数、土层强度变化,以及水合物储层特征等因素对水合物分解前后海底斜坡稳定性的影响规律。结果表明,未考虑水合物分解时,海底斜坡稳定性主要受控于斜坡坡度和土体强度,且主要表现为浅层滑坡。考虑水合物的分解时,水合物层强度降低会对斜坡的整体稳定性产生影响,但同等上覆层条件下最危险滑动面位置受水合物层埋深影响较大,且存在受地形几何特征与上覆土层强度控制的临界埋深。埋深大于临界埋深时,水合物分解对斜坡稳定性的影响较小,最危险滑动面位置位于上部浅层,表现为浅表层破坏。小于临界埋深时,最危险滑动面位置则经过水合物层,表现为深层滑坡。根据目前模型中的水合物层埋深条件,水合物分解后的深层滑动面安全系数仍高于浅部地层,意味该海域水合物开采仍需要关注浅层海底滑坡灾害的影响。     

Formation of pockmarks and submarine canyons associated with dissociation of gas hydrates on the Joetsu Knoll,eastern margin of the Sea of Japan

This study, based on 3.5 kHz SBP, 3D seismic data and long piston cores obtained during MD179 cruise, elucidated the timing and causes of pockmark and submarine canyon formation on the Joetsu Knoll in the eastern margin of the Sea of Japan. Gas hydrate mounds and pockmarks aligned parallel to the axis on the top of the Joetsu Knoll are associated with gas chimneys, pull-up structures, faults, and multiple bottom-simulating reflectors (BSRs), suggesting that thermogenic gas migrated upward through gas chimneys and faults from deep hydrocarbon sources and reservoirs. Seismic and core data suggest that submarine canyons on the western slope of the Joetsu Knoll were formed by turbidity currents generated by sand and mud ejection from pockmarks on the knoll. The pockmark and canyon formation probably commenced during the sea-level fall, lasting until transgression stages. Subsequently, hydropressure release during the sea level lowering might have instigated dissociation of the gas hydrate around the base of the gas hydrate, leading to generation and migration of large volumes of methane gas to the seafloor. Accumulation of hydrate caps below mounds eventually caused the collapse of the mounds and the formation of large depressions (pockmarks) along with ejection of sand and mud out of the pockmarks, thereby generating turbidity currents. Prolonged pockmark and submarine canyon activities might have persisted until the transgression stage because of time lags from gas hydrate dissociation around the base of the gas hydrate until upward migration to the seafloor. This study revealed the possibility that submarine canyons were formed by pockmark activities. If that process occurred, it would present important implications for reconstructing the long-term history of shallow gas hydrate activity based on submarine canyon development.     

水合物开采中深海古滑坡体的再启滑机制初探

我国南海北陆坡水合物富集区广泛发育古滑坡,若水合物开采不当可能导致古滑坡再次滑动。为了探究水合物开采诱发古滑坡再启滑机制,针对含下卧型水合物藏和伴生型水合物藏的两个典型古滑坡体,在边坡极限平衡分析框架内考虑了水合物开采过程中的瞬态孔压与土体抗剪强度变化,分析了水合物开采过程中不同古滑坡体的稳定性演变与失稳模式。研究表明,水合物分解导致所赋存土体的胶结强度弱化,同时逸出气体可能被阻滞于渗透性较低的古滑坡体下方,从而形成横向扩展的高压区。下卧型储层边坡的潜在滑移面贯穿古滑移面,一般表现为滑动型滑坡;开采初期因孔压积聚而导致边坡稳定性降低,开采中后期因二次水合物生成可能导致边坡稳定性有所回升,在本文计算条件下未触发古滑坡复活。伴生型储层边坡的稳定性受土体强度劣化与孔压积聚的共同影响,水合物开采导致古滑坡重新滑动,表现为滑塌型滑坡。     

Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical-Chemical Simulation of Methane Hydrate Dissociation in Porous Media

The vast amount of methane deposits in permafrost and oceanic sediments has significant energy and environmental implications. There are increasing interests in the development of numerical simulation techniques to predict the reservoir responses due to natural gas recovery from methane hydrate dissociation. There has been extensive amount of work on modeling the chemo- thermo- hydro-responses associated with hydrate dissociation. The mechanical responses of hydrate bearing ground, however, have largely been overlooked and are just starting to receive more and more attention. From energy recovery perspective, a comprehensive model that includes the mechanical responses of hydrate disassociation is crucial for predicting the mechanical stability of gas hydrate reservoir and potential geohazards. This paper proposes a thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical model for simulating the dissociation of methane hydrate. The governing equations for the conservation of energy (thermal), mass (hydraulic) and momentum (mechanical) were derived from the local balance equations. The proposed governing equation system for methane hydrate as a four-phase four-component composite was simplified based on reasonable assumptions to facilitate numerical implementations. The dissociation reaction was considered using chemical kinetics. Auxiliary relationships such as the soil water characteristic curve, constitutive correlations, stress formulation based on the mixture theory were employed to mathematically close the formulation. The mathematical model was implemented using the finite element method. The simulation results were evaluated and compared with those obtained by conventional simulators based on thermo-hydro-chemical models. The mechanical module of this new model was applied to predict the geotechnical responses induced by gas recovery in a typical oceanic reservoir.     

Towards improved ground models for slope instability evaluations through better characterization of sediment-hosted gas-hydrates

ABSTRACT Recently developed effective stress-controlled geophysical property models are used in passive-margin slope instability analyses including simulated earthquake motion. The pressure–temperature (P–T) history of sediment-hosted gas hydrate may significantly alter the geophysical property profile of the sediment column (e.g. metastable cement or increased pore pressures). This can result in significant amplification of earthquake ground motion, and thus seabed instability, where hydrates are present. Published studies suggest destabilization of these high-pressure/low-temperature sediment-hosted hydrates could trigger catastrophic slope failures with consequent liberation of 'greenhouse' gases and significant effects on global climate. To provide improved ground models for slope instability analyses we are investigating the influence of P–T history on hydrate distribution in sediments through the development of laboratory techniques to enable geophysical quantification of hydrate morphology and fabric on hydrate stability.     

Gas outburst with sediments because of tetrahydrofuran hydrate dissociation

Methane hydrate (MH) is a new energy resource in the 21^st century. But the dissociation of MH from sediments during the MH exploration or oil/gas exploration under a hydrate layer accompanied by the softening of soils and formation of excess pore gas pressure may lead to ground failures and environmental disasters. In this study, experiments on modeling the weakening and failure of the sediment by heat‐induced dissociation of tetrahydrofuran (THF) hydrate were presented. The failure mode of gas outburst was observed. Gas outbursts is a process where gas and soils in hydrate‐dissociation zone burst out after the continuous skeleton of over‐layer is fractured during the expansion of the dissociation zone and the formation of gas zone and excess pore gas pressure. An analytical method is presented by decoupling heat transfer and soil deformation. The geometrical and mechanical similarities for gas outburst are obtained. An empirical criterion for the occurrence of outburst is proposed using the theory of thermal conduction, rigid plastic mechanics, and the experimental data. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

北极斯瓦尔巴特群岛及邻区天然气水合物分解对气候、海洋环境和生物的影响

天然气水合物是一种潜在的巨量能源,但其分解释放的甲烷可能对全球气候与海洋环境产生巨大影响。然而,人们目前对天然气水合物分解产生的环境和生物效应的了解还不够全面。北极地区的斯瓦尔巴特群岛及邻区的海底和冻土层中蕴含大量甲烷,对气候变化十分敏感,是人们研究天然气水合物对气候变化的响应机制和其分解对生态环境影响的绝佳场所。系统总结了斯瓦尔巴特群岛及邻区水合物分解的气候与环境效应,发现目前研究区水合物分解产生的甲烷进入大气的年际通量不大,对全球气候的影响可能有限;水合物分解对海底滑坡起到催化剂的作用,但不是首要因素;海底水合物分解释放的甲烷能打破原有的化学平衡、生产力分布规律与输送机制、生物耦合关系甚至不同栖息地间的连通性,进而影响底栖生物群落。这些认识对研究天然气水合物开采对生态环境可能造成的影响和采取相应防治措施具有一定的借鉴意义。     

南海北部陆坡区神狐海域构造特征及对水合物的控制

通过对南海北部陆坡区神狐海域高精度2D和3D地震资料的精细解释,在研究区共识别出4种构造类型,分别为气烟囱(流体底辟)、区域大尺度断层、深水扇中的正断层和滑移体中的滑脱断层。气烟囱具有直立的通道形态,其内部结构可划分为杂乱反射带、模糊反射带和顶部强振幅区域。大尺度断层位于水合物钻探区的西北部和东北部,断层规模大,对深部地层表现出明显的控制作用。深水扇中的正断层广泛发育于上新世的深水扇中,特别是在水合物钻探区西部进积特征明显的深水扇中,正断层的数量更多。滑移体中的滑脱断层在神狐海域的第四纪地层中非常常见,在剖面上呈雁列式分布。研究结果表明,大尺度断层由于和水合物钻探区的距离较远,对于水合物的成藏可能不起控制作用。气烟囱和规模小数量多的断裂体系为含气流体的运移提供了垂向和侧向的输送通道,构成了水合物的流体运移体系。当富含甲烷气体的流体通过这些垂向-侧向的运移通道时,在合适的温压条件下,被适于水合物聚集的沉积体所捕获,就有可能形成水合物。水合物钻探区内东西部构造特征的差异,使得研究区内形成了不同的流体运移体系,这可能是控制钻探区水合物不均匀性分布的一个关键因素。     

Geomechanical modeling of hydrate‐bearing sediments during dissociation under shear

Methane hydrate‐bearing sediments exist throughout the world in continental margins and in Arctic permafrost. Hydrates are ice‐like compounds when dissociate due to temperature rise or reduction in fluid pressure, release gas. Because of the mechanical property changes caused by dissociation in which the loads supported by the hydrates are transferred to soil grains, these sediments may become unstable. To quantify the risk of ground instability triggered by dissociation, which may happen during operation to extract methane gas or from climate changes, a reliable predictive model is indispensable. Even though many models have been proposed, a detailed validation of the ability to model dissociation impact is still needed. This study investigated the adequacy of an spatially mobilized plane constitutive model and a modeling framework using laboratory‐induced dissociation tests under shear from literature. Using laboratory‐imposed temperature and pressure changes and the resulting hydrate saturation changes as input, this study was able to capture the geomechanical responses and determine the stability state of methane hydrate‐bearing sediments as observed. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

天然气水合物发育的构造背景分析

大量的钻孔资料和地震剖面显示主动大陆边缘的增生楔和被动大陆边缘的俯冲-增生楔、断裂-褶皱系、底辟构造或泥火山、滑塌构造、海底扇、"麻坑"构造和陆地多年冻土区等多种地质构造背景是形成天然气水合物的有利场所,可形成构造圈闭型天然气水合物矿藏。这些地质构造背景一方面大多是深部热成因气、生物成因气或混合成因气体或流体向上运移到海底的通道,形成天然气水合物矿藏;另一方面也可能造成天然气水合物的温压环境改变,致使天然气水合物分解。海底滑塌亦可能是天然气水合物分解所致,是潜在的地质灾害。     

Submarine landslide identified in MD179 cores,off-Joetsu area,eastern margin of the Sea of Japan

Gas hydrate is exposed on the sea floor and is buried in shallow sediments in the off-Joetsu area at the eastern margin of the Sea of Japan. Sediment cores recovered from topographic highs of the Joetsu Knoll and Umitaka Spur show pockmarks and mounds formed by gas hydrate dissociation, but those from the Un-named ridge have no such topographic features. All topographic highs and pockmarks mainly comprise bioturbated layers interbedded with thinly laminated (TL) layers, which are common Sea of Japan sediments. Recovered sediments are, however, mostly disturbed by submarine landslides, showing tilted horizons, faults, slump folds, and breccia, except that from the Un-named ridge. The timing of events is well constrained by identification of the number of TL layers in some sediment cores. Landslides occurred both during the cold glacial period of the late MIS3 to the last glacial maximum (LGM) and during the warm interglacial period of the post-LGM. All were caused by the explosive rise of gas hydrate formed at very shallow depths of the sea bottom by the supply of gas from the depth of the gas hydrate stability zone through gas chimney passages developed under the pockmarks. Seismic activity demands consideration as a factor because the off-Joetsu area is tectonically active.     

Are real-world shallow landslides reproducible by physically-based models? Four test cases in the Laternser valley,Vorarlberg (Austria)

In contrast to the complex nature of slope failures, physically-based slope stability models rely on simplified representations of landslide geometry. Depending on the modelling approach, landslide geometry is reduced to a slope-parallel layer of infinite length and width (e.g., the infinite slope stability model), a concatenation of rigid bodies (e.g., Janbu’s model), or a 3D representation of the slope failure (e.g., Hovland’s model). In this paper, the applicability of four slope stability models is tested at four shallow landslide sites where information on soil material and landslide geometry is available. Soil samples were collected in the field for conducting respective laboratory tests. Landslide geometry was extracted from pre- and post-event digital terrain models derived from airborne laser scanning. Results for fully saturated conditions suggest that a more complex representation of landslide geometry leads to increasingly stable conditions as predicted by the respective models. Using the maximum landslide depth and the median slope angle of the sliding surfaces, the infinite slope stability model correctly predicts slope failures for all test sites. Applying a 2D model for the slope failures, only two test sites are predicted to fail while the two other remain stable. Based on 3D models, none of the slope failures are predicted correctly. The differing results may be explained by the stabilizing effects of cohesion in shallower parts of the landslides. These parts are better represented in models which include a more detailed landslide geometry. Hence, comparing the results of the applied models, the infinite slope stability model generally yields a lower factor of safety due to the overestimation of landslide depth and volume. This simple approach is considered feasible for computing a regional overview of slope stability. For the local scale, more detailed studies including comprehensive material sampling and testing as well as regolith depth measurements are necessary.     

天然气水合物研究现状与未来挑战

人类在21世纪后期面临着油气资源枯渴,寻求洁净高效的新能源成为科学界追求的目标。为此,近三十年来,世界各国相继投入了大量的资金和人力开展新能源研究。目前,人们在一种重要的新能源---气水合物的基础研究、地质调查、勘探开发等领域取得了较大的进展;但尚存在许多急待解决的重大理论问题,如天然气水合物形成与分解的动力学过程和地质条件,气水合物资源量计算办法,经济型天然气水合物开采、开发模式,气水合物对全球气候的影响等。天然气水合物作为化石燃料,具有巨大潜力;作为甲烷碳库,是海底地质灾害的诱因;作为温室气体,对全球气候变化有着重要的影响作用。天然气水合物研究未来面临挑战。     

松散沉积物中水合物降压分解阵面演化实验及数值模拟

水合物分解阵面是水合物 开采现场监测关注重点之一,其传播速率与水合物开采效率密切相关,但是目前松散沉积物中水合物降压分解阵面演化数据积累明显不足。进行了松散沉积物中水合物降压分解阵面演化实验 ,采用时域反射技术测量了水合物饱和度随时间的变化,分析了水合物分解阵面的传播规律;提出了轴对称水合物降压分解数学模型并进行了适用性验证,通过敏感性分析探讨了影响因素对 水合物分解阵面演化过程的影响关系。基于室内实验和数值模拟认为：(1)水合物降压分解阵面传播距离与其传播时间平方根呈近似线性关系;(2)水合物降压分解阵面传播速率随其传播距离 的增加而迅速减小;(3)水合物降压分解阵面传播速率随着绝对渗透率基准值、气体饱和度初始值和环境温度的增加而增大,随着水合物饱和度初始值、下降指数和出口压力的增加而减小。     

南海北部天然气水合物成藏地质条件及成因模式探讨

中国南海北部陆坡区是天然气水合物成藏的理想场所,资源潜力巨大。文章基于天然气水合物勘探成果,结合南海北部天然气水合物成藏地质背景,从天然气水合物成藏的温压稳定条件、气源形成条件、构造输导条件和沉积储集条件4方面,系统分析了南海北部天然气水合物成藏的基本地质条件,探讨了南海北部陆坡中部神狐海域、南海北部陆坡西部海域和南海北部陆坡东北部海域天然气水合物的成藏类型与成因模式。结果认为,南海北部陆坡中部神狐海域主要发育扩散型水合物,而南海北部陆坡西部海域主要发育渗漏型水合物,南海北部陆坡东北部海域则发育兼具扩散型与渗漏型特征的复合型水合物。     

南海北部陆坡高饱和度天然气水合物气源运聚通道控藏作用

气源运聚通道与天然气水合物富集成藏关系密切。利用准三维地震资料并结合钻探成果,深入研究了神狐海域GMGS3钻探区高饱和度水合物站位气源运移疏导通道地质地球物理特征及其控藏作用。结果表明:高饱和度水合物产出站位发育多种类型运移疏导通道,且与BSR空间耦合关系较好;紧邻BSR之下为强振幅反射,强振幅下部游离气体充注现象明显,表明水合物稳定域下部存在气体运移的通道,且深部气体向浅层发生了运移。深大断裂、底辟及气烟囱构成了沟通深部热解气及浅层生物气与浅层温压稳定域的垂向通道,在这些通道上方可以直接形成水合物;浅部滑塌面、水道砂及海底扇构成的高孔渗连续性砂体为浅层生物气及深部运移而来的部分热成因气横向运移通道,气体的侧向运移扩大了气体供给范围,增加了矿体横向展布规模。文章认为,天然气运移疏导系统与其他成藏要素匹配良好的构造和区域是勘探高饱和度水合物的有利目标。