Fingerprinting Marcellus Shale waste products from Pb isotope and trace metal perspectives

Drill cuttings generated during unconventional natural gas extraction from the Marcellus Shale, Appalachian Basin, U.S.A., generally contain a very large component of organic-rich black shale because of extensive lateral drilling into this target unit. In this study, element concentrations and Pb isotope ratios obtained from leached drill cuttings spanning 600 m of stratigraphic section were used to assess the potential for short and long term environmental impacts from Marcellus Shale waste materials, in comparison with material from surrounding formations. Leachates of the units above, below and within the Marcellus Shale yielded Cl/Br ratios of 100–150, similar to produced water values. Leachates from oxidized and unoxidized drill cuttings from the Marcellus Shale contain distinct suites of elevated trace metal concentrations, including Cd, Cu, Mo, Ni, Sb, U, V and Zn. The most elevated Mo, Ni, Sb, U, and V concentrations are found in leachates from the lower portion of the Marcellus Shale, the section typically exploited for natural gas production. In addition, lower ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb ratios within the lower Marcellus Shale (0.661–0.733) provide a distinctive fingerprint from formations above (0.822–0.846) and below (0.796–0.810), reflecting ²⁰⁶Pb produced as a result of in situ ²³⁸U decay within this organic rich black shale. Trace metal concentrations from the Marcellus Shale leachates are similar to total metal concentrations from other black shales. These metal concentrations can exceed screening levels recommended by the EPA, and thus have the potential to impact soil and water quality depending on cuttings disposal methods.     

The Valley and Ridge Province of eastern Pennsylvania—stratigraphic and sedimentologic contributions and problems

Many contributions that have led to a better understanding of Appalachian geology have resulted directly from work in the folded Appalachian Mountain and Great Valley sections of the Valley and Ridge physiographic province of eastern Pennsylvania. Disagreements have been common since H.D. Rogers first described the geology of the area in 1858. Many differing opinions still exist regarding the stratigraphy, structural geology, geomorphology, and glacial geology. The rocks in the area, which range from Middle Ordovician to Late Devonian in age, are more than 25000 feet (7620 m) thick. This diversified group of sedimentary rocks was deposited in many different environments, ranging from deep sea, through neritic and tidal, to alluvial. In general, the Middle Ordovician through Lower Devonian strata are a sedimentary cycle related to the waxing and waning of Taconic tectonism. The sequence began with a greywacke-argillite suite (Martinsburg Formation) representing synorogenic basin deepening. This was followed by basin filling and pro-gradation of a sandstone-shale clastic wedge (Shawangunk Formation and Bloomsburg Red Beds) derived from the erosion of the mountains that were uplifted during the Taconic orogeny. The sequence ended with deposition of many thin units of carbonate, sandstone, and shale on a shelf marginal to a land area of low relief. Another tectonic-sedimentary cycle, related to the Acadian orogeny, began with deposition of Middle Devonian rocks. Deep-water shales (Marcellus Shale) preceded shoaling (Mahantango Formation) and turbidite sedimentation (Trimmers Rock Formation) followed by another molasse (Catskill Formation).     

Factor analysis of borehole logs for evaluating formation shaliness: a hydrogeophysical application for groundwater studies

The calculation of groundwater reserves in shaly sand aquifers requires a reliable estimation of effective porosity and permeability; the amount of shaliness as a related quantity can be determined from well log analysis. The conventionally used linear model, connecting the natural gamma-ray index to shale content, often gives only a rough estimate of shale volume. A non-linear model is suggested, which is derived from the factor analysis of well-logging data. An earlier study of hydrocarbon wells revealed an empirical relationship between the factor scores and shale volume, independent of the well site. Borehole logs from three groundwater wells drilled in the northeastern Great Hungarian Plain are analyzed to derive depth logs of factor variables, which are then correlated with shale volumes given from the method of Larionov. Shale volume logs derived by the statistical procedure are in close agreement with those derived from Larionov’s formula, which confirms the validity of the non-linear approximation. The statistical results are in good accordance with laboratory measurements made on core samples. Whereas conventional methods normally use a single well log as input, factor analysis processes all available logs to provide groundwater exploration with reliable estimations of shale volume.     

Geology of the Devonian black shales of the Appalachian Basin

Black shales of Devonian age in the Appalachian Basin are a unique rock sequence. The high content of organic matter, which imparts the characteristic lithology, has for years attracted considerable interest in the shales as a possible source of energy. The recent energy shortage prompted the U.S. Department of Energy through the Eastern Gas Shales Project of the Morgantown Energy Technology Center to underwrite a research program to determine the geologic, geochemical, and structural characteristics of the Devonian black shales in order to enhance the recovery of gas from the shales. Geologic studies by Federal and State agencies and academic institutions produced a regional stratigraphic network that correlates the 15 ft black shale sequence in Tennessee with 3000 ft of interbedded black and gray shales in central New York. These studies correlate the classic Devonian black shale sequence in New York with the Ohio Shale of Ohio and Kentucky and the Chattanooga Shale of Tennessee and southwestern Virginia. Biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic markers in conjunction with gamma-ray logs facilitated long-range correlations within the Appalachian Basin. Basinwide correlations, including the subsurface rocks, provided a basis for determining the areal distribution and thickness of the important black shale units. The organic carbon content of the dark shales generally increases from east to west across the basin and is sufficient to qualify as a hydrocarbon source rock. Significant structural features that involve the black shale and their hydrocarbon potential are the Rome trough, Kentucky River and Irvine-Paint Creek fault zone, and regional decollements and ramp zones.     

The relationship between methane migration and shale-gas well operations near Dimock,Pennsylvania, USA

Migration of stray methane gas near the town of Dimock, Pennsylvania, has been at the center of the debate on the safety of shale gas drilling and hydraulic fracturing in the United States. The presented study relates temporal variations in molecular concentrations and stable isotope compositions of methane and ethane to shale-gas well activity (i.e., vertical/horizontal drilling, hydraulic fracturing and remedial actions). This was accomplished by analyzing data collected, between 2008 and 2012, by state and federal agencies and the gas well operator. In some cases, methane migration started prior to hydraulic fracturing. Methane levels of contaminated water wells sampled were one to several orders of magnitude greater than the concentrations due to natural variation in water wells of the local area. Isotope analyses indicate that all samples had a thermogenic origin at varying maturity levels, but from formations above the hydraulically fractured Marcellus Shale. The results from the initial water well samples were similar to annular gas values, but not those of production gases. This indicates that leakage by casing cement seals most likely caused the impacts, not breaks in the production casing walls. Remediation by squeeze cementing was partially effective in mitigating impacts of gas migration. In several cases where remediation caused a substantial reduction in methane levels, there were also substantial changes in the isotope values, providing evidence of two sources, one natural and the other man-induced. Sampling water wells while venting gas wells appears to be a cost-effective method for determining if methane migration has occurred.

     

页岩油气富集的主控因素及误辩:以美国、阿根廷和中国典型页岩为例

页岩气富集不均匀,无论对于不同页岩油气藏还是同一页岩油气藏不同地方,产量都是有高有低.有必要系统分析和对比全球不同页岩油气的地质、石油系统与油气富集的关系,总结页岩油气富集的主控因素,从而采取合理的勘探和开发技术.以美国、阿根廷和中国典型页岩为例,基于野外和岩心观察、样品属性测试分析、储层表征、石油系统分析及油气测试,探究了页岩油气富集的主控因素及存在的认识误区.结果表明,富含有机质和脆性矿物的页岩主要分布于远离造山带物源的非深水的沉积和构造背景,富含石英和高伽马页岩并非判断优质储层的矿物和岩石物理标准,优质碳酸盐页岩应以富含碳酸盐和低伽马值为标准.页岩油气藏实际是细粒富含有机质的自生自储或与富含有机质烃源岩相邻的贫有机质细粒沉积储层.天然裂缝对页岩油气富集具有有利和不利的双重作用.因此,页岩油气富集同时受到沉积和构造环境、岩相及矿物组成、天然裂缝的耦合影响,且对不同沉积盆地、不同属性页岩的影响差异明显.      

基于Kohonen神经网络的页岩油岩相测井识别方法

准噶尔盆地吉木萨尔凹陷二叠系芦草沟组岩性复杂,岩相多样,亟需建立配套的岩相测井识别方法。综合利用岩心薄片、常规测井与成像测井等资料对芦草沟组的岩性、沉积构造等特征进行研究,在此基础上进行岩相类型划分,并分析不同岩相的测井响应特征,建立岩相测井评价模型。结果表明,研究区主要由云质泥岩、泥质粉砂岩、粉砂质泥岩等岩性组成;根据岩心的矿物组成,考虑在岩心尺度上的可区分性、测井中的可识别性,划分出块状白云质泥岩相、平行/波状层理泥质粉砂岩相、块状泥岩相、块状泥晶白云岩相、平行层理粉砂岩相和波状/水平层理粉砂质泥岩相6种主要岩相类型。在此基础上通过岩心刻度测井资料建立岩相判别准则,并利用Kohonen神经网络方法实现单井岩相测井自动判别,划分结果与薄片匹配较好。研究成果可提高未取心井的岩相识别效率与精度,为该地区页岩油勘探提供一定的理论依据与方法支撑。     

复杂地质特征中富有机质页岩脆性评价方法研究

页岩脆性是页岩气勘探开发中“工程甜点”选区的重要评价指标。针对目前页岩脆性评价方法多样,加之我国复杂的各种地质条件与因素均对页岩脆性存在不同程度的影响,难以全面科学的表征页岩脆性等问题,通过对我国产气的主要页岩层系中现有的脆性评价方法的分析,结合页岩岩性岩相特征、埋深情况、有机质与石英含量、室内页岩的力学性质测试和镜下微观结构的观察等研究成果的调研,认为沉积环境和岩性岩相决定页岩脆性矿物种类;埋深环境决定着岩石外部的围压和温度,进而影响岩石力学性质;有机质与石英含量两者差异致使页岩脆性在纵向上产生变化;页岩层理结构和微观孔隙结构特征影响页岩破裂模式,也决定着力学性质的各向异性。综合我国各种复杂地质特征,针对页岩内部与外部环境提出了一种简单的脆性理想评价模型,增强了复杂地质条件中页岩脆性评价的适用性。     

下扬子地区奥陶纪页岩气地质条件及远景区优选

由于下扬子地区中奥陶世胡乐组和早奥陶世宁国组是具有页岩气勘探潜力的新层系,进而开展了该区页岩气地质条件分析和远景区优选工作。从胡乐组和宁国组黑色页岩构造及沉积背景入手,利用区域地质调查和钻井资料,分析奥陶纪页岩的地球化学、储层及展布特征。下扬子地区中奥陶世胡乐组和早奥陶世宁国组泥页岩有效厚度大,单层厚普遍>30 m,有机质含量高且热演化程度存在适中区,脆性矿物含量高。下扬子地区奥陶纪页岩具备页岩气形成、富集的地质条件,具有较好的资源潜力,划分出安徽宁国奥陶纪页岩气远景区和浙江淳安-桐庐奥陶纪页岩气远景区。     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987114001649

Hydrocarbon production from shale has attracted much attention in the recent years. When applied to this prolific and hydrocarbon rich resource plays, our understanding of the complexities of the flow mechanism(sorption process and flow behavior in complex fracture systems- induced or natural) leaves much to be desired. In this paper, we present and discuss a novel approach to modeling, history matching of hydrocarbon production from a Marcellus shale asset in southwestern Pennsylvania using advanced data mining, pattern recognition and machine learning technologies. In this new approach instead of imposing our understanding of the flow mechanism, the impact of multi-stage hydraulic fractures, and the production process on the reservoir model, we allow the production history, well log, completion and hydraulic fracturing data to guide our model and determine its behavior. The uniqueness of this technology is that it incorporates the so-called "hard data" directly into the reservoir model, so that the model can be used to optimize the hydraulic fracture process. The "hard data" refers to field measurements during the hydraulic fracturing process such as fluid and proppant type and amount, injection pressure and rate as well as proppant concentration. This novel approach contrasts with the current industry focus on the use of "soft data"(non-measured, interpretive data such as frac length, width,height and conductivity) in the reservoir models. The study focuses on a Marcellus shale asset that includes 135 wells with multiple pads, different landing targets, well length and reservoir properties. The full field history matching process was successfully completed using this data driven approach thus capturing the production behavior with acceptable accuracy for individual wells and for the entire asset.     

基于测井资料的辫状河三角洲沉积储层精细描述

通过岩心观察、常规测井和成像测井等资料,对库车坳陷大北克深地区白垩系巴什基奇克组辫状河三角洲沉积储层特征进行了精细研究。结果表明辫状河三角洲前缘发育的水下分流河道、河口坝等构成了主要的骨架砂体类型。通过岩心刻度测井建立了一套较完整的岩性和沉积构造识别模式。在此基础上建立了不同沉积微相的测井识别与划分标准,并探讨了不同沉积微相对储层物性的控制。然后根据粒度中值和成分成熟度指数将沉积微相进一步细分为水下分流河道中砂岩、水下分流河道细砂岩等不同的岩性岩相类型,并分别建立了粒度中值和成分成熟度指数的测井评价模型。在此基础上以成像测井为主,辅以常规测井和岩心资料及粒度参数和成分成熟度指数,实现单井连续的岩性岩相识别与划分。研究成果可为后续沉积储层精细评价乃至天然气勘探开发综合研究奠定基础。     

页岩岩相类型对裂缝形成及演化的影响研究——以黔西北地区龙马溪组为例

沉积环境的变迁导致岩相的递变,进而控制着裂缝的形成和演化,揭示不同页岩岩相中裂缝的发育规律及有关机制,对于“甜点”层的脆性精细评价具有重要的工程意义。以黔西北地区龙马溪组页岩为例,通过X‐射线衍射实验、偏光显微镜、岩石力学实验以及有限元数值模拟,对不同岩相类型进行了划分,深入探讨了不同页岩岩相类型岩石的力学性质以及破坏模式,最后再现了两种不同岩相叠置的地质体模型中裂缝的形成和演化的动态可视化过程。结果表明:龙马溪组富有机质页岩层段主要发育硅质页岩、钙质硅质混合页岩以及粘土质硅质混合页岩等3种岩相类型;硅质页岩具有较高的应力跌落速率和弹性能量转化效率,裂缝拓展能力较强,岩石整体具有较强的脆性,纵向和横向裂缝均有发育且相互之间发生交会和联结,而钙质硅质混合页岩裂缝拓展能力次之,最弱者为粘土质硅质混合页岩;粘土质硅质混合页岩夹层对孔隙水压力和主应力的传播有较强的应力屏障效应,裂缝跨层传播能力随应力的急剧下降而受到削弱,钙质硅质页岩应力屏障效应较弱,裂缝具有较强的跨层传播能力。这些研究成果对“甜点”层优选、水平井地质导向以及压裂施工参数的调整等具有较好的参考价值。     

Extending the Application of a Shale Volume Estimation Formula Derived from Factor Analysis of Wireline Logging Data

A multivariate statistical procedure is developed for the estimation of shale volume in clastic sedimentary formations. The method offers an alternative for extracting the shale content from borehole geophysical measurements. Factor analysis of various well-logging data types generates a new well log that correlates with the shale content of shaly-sandy rocks. The mathematical relationship between shale volume and factor scores is represented by a nonlinear equation, which seems to be applicable for data sets originating from different sedimentary basins. A comparative study is made between three different data sets originating from Hungary and the United States of America in order to check the validity of the proposed empirical formula. Shale volumes predicted from factor analysis are confirmed by estimates from independent deterministic and inverse modeling. Petrophysical information derived by factor analysis of logs recorded in deep wells can be used for a more accurate and reliable estimation of effective porosity and absolute permeability of reservoir rocks, for decreasing the estimation error of inversion estimates and for reducing the ambiguity in the solution of the well-logging inverse problem.     

湖南弗拉阶地层的分布特征和页岩气有利区

湖南上泥盆统弗拉阶佘田桥组泥页岩是重要的页岩气勘探目的层。由于区域上具有岩相分异显著、变化快的特征,佘田桥组存在多个同期地层,容易造成引用和野外识别困难,严重制约其页岩气调查工作进程。通过梳理佘田桥组及其同期地层的历史沿革,明确和圈定了它们的分布区域和使用范围。基于佘田桥组的岩石组合特征、有机碳含量的区域变化和已有调查成果,提出受陆缘碎屑输入影响较强的新化-涟源、邵东地区为页岩气有利勘探区的设想,同时认为找准台盆范围是页岩气调查发现的关键。     

西藏伦坡拉盆地油页岩特征及分布规律

伦坡拉盆地有较大规模的油页岩出露,根据油页岩工业划分标准,伦坡拉油页岩属于含油率较高的高灰分、特低硫型油页岩。伦坡拉油页岩主要发育于丁青湖组之中,形成于半深湖-深湖相沉积环境。通过岩相古地理研究,发现伦坡拉油页岩厚度受沉积相带控制,呈规律性展布,从深湖-半深湖-浅湖-滨湖呈环带状由中心向四周逐渐减小的变化趋势,位于盆地中央半深湖-深湖相区的伦坡日、蒋日阿错地区油页岩厚度相对较大,具有广阔的开发利用前景。     

鄂尔多斯盆地华池地区三叠系延长组长7段富有机质页岩岩相特征

鄂尔多斯盆地三叠系延长组长7油层组发育富有机质页岩和泥岩,目前已成为鄂尔多斯盆地页岩油气勘探的重要层位。综合岩心精细描述、薄片微观结构观察和粒度分析结果,将富有机质页岩和泥岩划分为黑色页岩岩相、纹层状泥岩岩相、粉砂质泥岩岩相。粉砂质泥岩岩相的脆性矿物含量高于黑色页岩岩相和纹层状泥岩岩相,后者比前者具有更高的黄铁矿含量,3种岩相的黏土矿物含量较接近。黑色页岩岩相有机质丰度高,有机质类型以I型干酪根为主,是最有利的富有机质岩相类型,其次为纹层状泥岩岩相。长7油层组沉积时期水体为分层的厌氧环境,有利于有机质的保存,低等水生生物是主要的母质来源。黑色页岩岩相和纹层状泥岩岩相形成于安静、缺少陆源碎屑影响的深湖环境下;粉砂质泥岩岩相形成于受陆源碎屑频繁影响的环境,有较多的陆源高等物质输入湖盆中,造成有机质类型复杂。将岩心精细描述和测井信息紧密结合,揭示了各类岩相纵向发育特征。受基准面变化和沉积物供给能力影响,长73以黑色页岩岩相和纹层状泥岩岩相为主,长72和长71以纹层状泥岩岩相和粉砂质泥岩岩相为主。长73暗色泥岩和页岩的岩相类型好,发育页理缝和纹层缝,有机质类型好、丰度高,是最有利的页岩油气勘探目的层系。     

下扬子地区高家边组底部黑色页岩与北美Marcellus页岩地质特征对比

从地层形成的构造古地理环境、地层的厚度及空间展布以及烃源岩的岩性特征等方面,对美国东部阿巴拉契亚盆地中泥盆统Marcellus页岩和下扬子地区的下志留统高家边组黑色页岩作对比研究。结果发现,两套地层形成于相似的古地理环境,都沉积于前陆盆地早期缺氧的闭塞水体中,都是有利于细粒的有机质保存形成黑色页岩的环境。两套地层的分布和埋深都受到同沉积构造及其后期改造作用的相互影响,同时也对其中页岩的空间分布和勘探前景起重要的控制作用。两套页岩都是较好的烃源岩,含有较高的总有机碳(TOC)和脆性矿物,且都达到了高成熟阶段,生气和产气潜力大。相对于Marcellus页岩,高家边组黑色页岩TOC含量较低,埋深更大,而且受到多次构造作用的改造,使得其勘探风险相对较大。     

基于地球物理和地球化学数据的页岩油甜点区综合预测:以泌阳凹陷核三段5号页岩层为例

我国页岩油气勘探开发不断取得实质性进展,有望成为未来油气资源的重要接替能源.而提高页岩油储层钻遇率和油气产量的关键是甜点区的预测和评价.以泌阳凹陷核桃园组三段5号富有机质页岩层为研究对象,综合利用多种地球物理方法和地球化学指标,通过岩相、含油性、储集条件和地层压力等关键评价参数分析,探讨了综合信息叠合的页岩油甜点区预测方法.研究表明:（1）脆性矿物含量普遍大于50%,以灰质页岩和粘土质页岩夹粉砂质页岩为主的岩相是页岩油赋存的优势岩相;（2）低自由烃差值和高含油饱和指数均指示高含量游离态页岩油,指示了页岩含油性最好区域;（3）夹层主要发育在深凹区周缘,断裂控制的相互重叠区域或派生断裂控制区微裂缝更为发育;（4）异常高压对页岩油微距离运移和富集的影响较大;（5）基于不同参数门槛值对页岩储层进行综合评价划分,采用综合信息叠合法预测出3类甜点区.本文为多参数综合评价和识别陆相页岩油甜点区提供了有效范例,对指导陆相页岩油勘探具有重要的实践意义.      

滇东曲靖地区下寒武统筇竹寺组泥页岩储层特征研究

下寒武统筇竹寺组页岩是南方页岩气勘查开发重点关注的层位之一,但滇东地区下寒武统筇竹寺组黑色页岩储层研究程度较低。样品采自2014年新钻的曲页1井,对下寒武统筇竹寺组黑色泥页岩进行全岩和粘土矿物X衍射分析、TOC、岩石物性、比表面积等测试和扫描电镜实验,综合分析了滇东曲靖地区筇竹寺组泥页岩储层特征及孔隙类型。结果表明:滇东曲靖地区下寒武统筇竹寺组泥页岩矿物组成主要是石英(44.75%)、粘土矿物(25.47%)、长石(16.44%);发育粒间孔、粒内孔和有机孔3种类型孔隙;有机质孔隙发育,以中孔为主,具有一定的页岩气勘探开发潜力;页岩储层自上而下孔隙体积有逐渐变小的趋势,但在井深400 m~500 m发育高孔隙体积;泥页岩储集性能的重要指标——孔隙度主要受有机质含量及发育程度的制约。     

松辽盆地陆相页岩油地质研究方法与勘探评价进展

针对陆相页岩油储层结构非均质性强、孔隙结构复杂、产能主控因素不明等勘探开发面临的挑战和技术瓶颈,建立了有机、无机地球化学与沉积学结合的陆相细粒沉积旋回及古环境演化重建的沉积地球化学方法,厘清了古水体性质与矿物组成、有机质富集的响应关系;建立了陆相富有机质页岩岩相划分标准和测井识别方法,分析了细粒沉积储层结构非均质性;厘...