Characterisation of glacial sediments using geophysical methods for groundwater source protection

A sequence of glacial and alluvial deposits overlying the Cretaceous Chalk in Eastern England was characterised using two geophysical techniques: electrical resistivity imaging and electromagnetic (EM) induction. Extensive geological data were available from trenching and boreholes. Synthetic modelling of the electrical resistivity imaging technique was undertaken to identify its limitations and to optimise survey design. The EM induction method provided a quick and cost-effective reconnaissance technique for identifying large-scale lateral variation in lithology, and for siting resistivity profiles and further boreholes. The resistivity imaging technique provided detailed information on the vertical continuity of permeable units, and was able to identify permeable pathways through the sequence. Certain limitations in detecting thin sand or gravel layers underlying electrically conductive clay were seen in both the synthetic and field data. Nevertheless, the study shows that knowledge of these limitations allows interpretation for the purpose of groundwater vulnerability assessment, given that an appropriate amount of invasive investigation has been conducted.     

Characterisation of glacial sediments using geophysical methods for groundwater source protection

A sequence of glacial and alluvial deposits overlying the Cretaceous Chalk in Eastern England was characterised using two geophysical techniques: electrical resistivity imaging and electromagnetic (EM) induction. Extensive geological data were available from trenching and boreholes. Synthetic modelling of the electrical resistivity imaging technique was undertaken to identify its limitations and to optimise survey design. The EM induction method provided a quick and cost-effective reconnaissance technique for identifying large-scale lateral variation in lithology, and for siting resistivity profiles and further boreholes. The resistivity imaging technique provided detailed information on the vertical continuity of permeable units, and was able to identify permeable pathways through the sequence. Certain limitations in detecting thin sand or gravel layers underlying electrically conductive clay were seen in both the synthetic and field data. Nevertheless, the study shows that knowledge of these limitations allows interpretation for the purpose of groundwater vulnerability assessment, given that an appropriate amount of invasive investigation has been conducted.     

Imaging a 3D geological structure from HEM, airborne magnetic and ground ERT data in Kalat-e-Reshm area, Iran

A set of geophysical data collected in an area in Iran are analyzed to check the validity of a geological map that was prepared in connection to a mineral prospecting project and also to image the spatial electrical resistivity distribution. The data set includes helicopter electromagnetic (HEM), airborne magnetic and ground electrical resistivity measurement. Occam approach was used to invert the HEM data to model the resistivity using a layered earth model with fixed thicknesses. The algorithm is based on a nonlinear inverse problem in a least-squares sense.The algorithm was tested on a part of an HEM dataset acquired with a DIGHEM helicopter EM system at Kalat-e-Reshm, Semnan in Iran. The area contains a resistive porphyry andesite that is covered by Eocene sedimentary units. The results are shown as resistivity sections and maps confirming the existence of an arc like resistive structure in the survey area. The resistive andesite seems to be thicker than it is indicated in the geological maps. The results are compared with the reduced to the pole (RTP) airborne magnetic anomaly field data as well as with two ground resistivity profiles. We found reasonable correlations between the HEM 1D resistivity models and 2D models from electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) inversions. A 3D visualization of the 1D models along all flight lines provided a useful tool for the study of spatial variations of the resistivity structure in the investigation area.     

Joint inversion of long‐offset and central‐loop transient electromagnetic data: Application to a mud volcano exploration in Perekishkul,Azerbaijan

Mud volcanism is commonly observed in Azerbaijan and the surrounding South Caspian Basin. This natural phenomenon is very similar to magmatic volcanoes but differs in one considerable aspect: Magmatic volcanoes are generally the result of ascending molten rock within the Earth's crust, whereas mud volcanoes are characterised by expelling mixtures of water, mud, and gas. The majority of mud volcanoes have been observed on ocean floors or in deep sedimentary basins, such as those found in Azerbaijan. Furthermore, their occurrences in Azerbaijan are generally closely associated with hydrocarbon reservoirs and are therefore of immense economic and geological interest. The broadside long‐offset transient electromagnetic method and the central‐loop transient electromagnetic method were applied to study the inner structure of such mud volcanoes and to determine the depth of a resistive geological formation that is predicted to contain the majority of the hydrocarbon reservoirs in the survey area. One‐dimensional joint inversion of central‐loop and long‐offset transient electromagnetic data was performed using the inversion schemes of Occam and Marquardt. By using the joint inversion models, a subsurface resistivity structure ranging from the surface to a depth of approximately 7 km was determined. Along a profile running perpendicular to the assumed strike direction, lateral resistivity variations could only be determined in the shallow depth range using the transient electromagnetic data. An attempt to resolve further two‐dimensional/three‐dimensional resistivity structures, representing possible mud migration paths at large depths using the long‐offset transient electromagnetic data, failed. Moreover, the joint inversion models led to ambiguous results regarding the depth and resistivity of the hydrocarbon target formation due to poor resolution at great depths (>5 km). Thus, 1D/2D modelling studies were subsequently performed to investigate the influence of the resistive terminating half‐space on the measured long‐offset transient electromagnetic data. The 1D joint inversion models were utilised as starting models for both the 1D and 2D modelling studies. The results tend to show that a resistive terminating half‐space, implying the presence of the target formation, is the favourable geological setting. Furthermore, the 2D modelling study aimed to fit all measured long‐offset transient electromagnetic Ex transients along the profile simultaneously. Consequently, 3125 2D forward calculations were necessary to determine the best‐fit resistivity model. The results are consistent with the 1D inversion, indicating that the data are best described by a resistive terminating half‐space, although the resistivity and depth cannot be determined clearly.     

The use of reference models from a priori data to guide 2D inversion of electrical resistivity tomography data

Clay-rich till plains cover much of the UK. Such sites are attractive locations for landfills, since clay aquitards lower the risk of landfill leachate entering groundwater. However, such tills often contain sand and gravel bodies that can act as leachate flow routes. Such bodies may not be detected by conventional site investigation techniques such as drilling boreholes and trial pitting. A method of guided inversion, where a priori data are used to construct structural reference models for use in inverting electrical resistivity tomography data, was proposed as a tool to improve the detection of sand and gravel bodies within clay-rich till sequences.
Following a successful 2D guided inversion synthetic modelling study, a field study was undertaken. Wenner 2D electrical resistivity tomography lines, resistivity cone penetrometry bores and electromagnetic induction ground resistivity data were collected over a site on the East Yorkshire coast, England, where sand and gravel lenses were known to exist from cliff exposures. A number of equally valid geoelectrical models were constructed using the electromagnetic and resistivity cone data. These were used as structural reference models in the inversion of the resistivity tomography data. Blind inversion using an homogenous reference model was also carried out for comparison.
It was shown for the first time that the best solution model produced by 2D inversion of one data set with a range of structural reference models could be determined by using the l ₂ model misfit between the solution models and associated reference models (reference misfit) as a proxy for the l ₂ misfit between the solution models and the synthetic model or 'best-guess' geoelectrical model (true misfit). The 2D methodology developed here is applicable in clay-rich till plains containing sand and gravel bodies throughout the UK.     

Calibrating a Salt Water Intrusion Model with Time‐Domain Electromagnetic Data

Salt water intrusion models are commonly used to support groundwater resource management in coastal aquifers. Concentration data used for model calibration are often sparse and limited in spatial extent. With airborne and ground‐based electromagnetic surveys, electrical resistivity models can be obtained to provide high‐resolution three‐dimensional models of subsurface resistivity variations that can be related to geology and salt concentrations on a regional scale. Several previous studies have calibrated salt water intrusion models with geophysical data, but are typically limited to the use of the inverted electrical resistivity models without considering the measured geophysical data directly. This induces a number of errors related to inconsistent scales between the geophysical and hydrologic models and the applied regularization constraints in the geophysical inversion. To overcome these errors, we perform a coupled hydrogeophysical inversion (CHI) in which we use a salt water intrusion model to interpret the geophysical data and guide the geophysical inversion. We refer to this methodology as a Coupled Hydrogeophysical Inversion‐State (CHI‐S), in which simulated salt concentrations are transformed to an electrical resistivity model, after which a geophysical forward response is calculated and compared with the measured geophysical data. This approach was applied for a field site in Santa Cruz County, California, where a time‐domain electromagnetic (TDEM) dataset was collected. For this location, a simple two‐dimensional cross‐sectional salt water intrusion model was developed, for which we estimated five uniform aquifer properties, incorporating the porosity that was also part of the employed petrophysical relationship. In addition, one geophysical parameter was estimated. The six parameters could be resolved well by fitting more than 300 apparent resistivities that were comprised by the TDEM dataset. Except for three sounding locations, all the TDEM data could be fitted close to a root‐mean‐square error of 1. Possible explanations for the poor fit of these soundings are the assumption of spatial uniformity, fixed boundary conditions and the neglecting of 3D effects in the groundwater model and the TDEM forward responses.     

Automatic 1D inversion of multifrequency airborne electromagnetic data with artificial neural networks: discussion and a case study

Artificial neural networks were used to implement an automatic inversion of frequency‐domain airborne electromagnetic (AEM) data that do not require a priori information about the survey area. Two classes of model, i.e. homogeneous half‐space models and horizontally layered half‐space models with two layers, are used in this 1D inversion, and for each data point the selection of the class of 1D model is performed prior to the inversion, also using an artificial neural network. The proposed inversion method was tested in a survey area situated in Austria, northwest of Vienna in the Bohemian Massif. The results of the inversion were compared with the geological setting, logging results, and seismic and gravimetric measurements. This comparison shows a good correlation between the AEM models and the known geological and geophysical data.     

部分区域约束下的交叉梯度多重地球物理数据联合反演

交叉梯度联合反演方法通过对多种地球物理模型实现结构耦合,在岩石物性关系不确定的情况下,既能提高反演结果的可靠性,又能减少反演的多解性,还能减少不同方法解释结果之间的矛盾.当不同的模型观测数据覆盖范围不一致时,交叉梯度联合反演通常需要取出重叠区域数据进行联合反演,并且建模时还要扩展一些模型范围.本文首先提出并实现了部分区域约束下的交叉梯度多重地球物理数据联合反演算法;接着进行了算法的模型试算;最后,我们将该反演算法用于本溪—集安深部地质调查重磁电综合地质地球物理解释中.结果表明:该算法不但能在重叠区域内很好地恢复结构相似的模型,而且在非重叠区域与重叠区域的边界处仍然可以得到平滑变化的模型;在本溪—集安10号剖面所获得的结构上相似的电阻率、密度及磁化率模型较好地反映了该区的深部地质结构,对于确定深部地质体的性质提供了有力的证据.     

A comparison of helicopter‐borne electromagnetic systems for hydrogeologic studies

The increased application of airborne electromagnetic surveys to hydrogeological studies is driving a demand for data that can consistently be inverted for accurate subsurface resistivity structure from the near surface to depths of several hundred metres. We present an evaluation of three commercial airborne electromagnetic systems over two test blocks in western Nebraska, USA. The selected test blocks are representative of shallow and deep alluvial aquifer systems with low groundwater salinity and an electrically conductive base of aquifer. The aquifer units show significant lithologic heterogeneity and include both modern and ancient river systems. We compared the various data sets to one another and inverted resistivity models to borehole lithology and to ground geophysical models. We find distinct differences among the airborne electromagnetic systems as regards the spatial resolution of models, the depth of investigation, and the ability to recover near‐surface resistivity variations. We further identify systematic biases in some data sets, which we attribute to incomplete or inexact calibration or compensation procedures.     

Generalised Series Expansion (GSE) used in DC geoelectric–seismic joint inversion

Horizontally layered (1D) earth models are often assumed as a model estimate for the interpretation of geophysical data measured along 2D geological structures. In this process, the individual data sets are usually inverted independently, and it is considered only in a later phase of interpretation that these local (1D) models have common characteristic features. Taking account of these common attributes, instead of the successive independent interpretations, the lateral variations of geometrical and petrophysical parameters can be efficiently determined for the whole 2D structure by applying a series expansion. Using global basis functions, two advantages can be achieved: (i) choosing an appropriate number of basis functions helps us to restrict the complexity of the model; (ii) the integration of all the data sets measured along the profile gives rise to the application of simultaneous or joint inversion methods. This results in a decrease of the number of independent unknowns, a higher stability during the inversion and a more accurate and reliable parameter estimation.In this paper, a joint inversion algorithm is presented using DC geoelectric apparent resistivities and refraction seismic travel times measured along various layouts above a 2D geological model. To describe lateral variations series, expansions are used, and furthermore, to improve the often used approximation of a (locally) 1D forward modelling, the integral mean value of the horizontally changing model parameters (calculated along an appropriately defined interval) is introduced. We call the inversion procedure that combines series expansions and the concept of integral mean Generalised Series Expansion (GSE) inversion. The method was developed and tested for both the simultaneous (integrating data sets of one method or methods on the same physical basis) and the joint inversion (where data sets of methods on different physical bases are joined together), using synthetic and field data sets. It is also demonstrated that the equivalence problem inherent in the independent inversion of DC geoelectric data can efficiently be resolved by the use of the joint GSE inversion method in the cases of conductive and resistive equivalent geological models.     

井间电磁波CT技术及其在岩溶勘察中的应用

井间电磁波层析成像技术是将医学CT应用于地球物理学中的一项新技术,它主要依据电磁波在不同介质中传播时的吸收差异,重建井间介质吸收系数的分布图像,形象及直观地展现研究区域的地质结构。本文详细地研究了井间电磁波层析成像技术的基本原理,对具有高低吸收电磁异常体的理论模型,根据一定的观测系统对电磁波的场强进行了数值模拟,并采用SIRT反演技术对吸收异常体的图像进行了重建;同时将该方法应用于广西某地拟建桥址的岩溶勘查之中,取得了良好的应用效果。     

A radio magnetotelluric study to evaluate the extents of a limestone quarry in Estonia

Electromagnetic signals from distant radio transmitters in the frequency range 15–250 kHz were measured to model an electrical resistivity structure beneath 7 profiles in the vicinity of the Karinu limestone quarry in Estonia with the aim to map the extent of the economically exploitable limestone. The resistivity models from a 2D inversion of determinant resistivity and phase values using an Occam type of regularization contained reasonably accurate information about the geometry, namely depth to the top and the bottom of the target high‐resistivity limestone. The resistivity models correlated well with existing geological evidences as well as information from closely located boreholes. However, the sharp lithological boundaries seen in the boreholes were not resolved exactly in the resistivity models. This is probably because of the smoothing regularization used in the inversion process. Combined use of borehole data together with resistivity models resulted in two major geological interpretations; a) towards the western part of the existing limestone quarry there is a NNW to NS striking fault, covered by post‐glacial sediments, b) a potential cost‐effective exploitable area containing high quality highly resistive limestone is located south of the existing quarry. This case study shows the applicability of the reasonably fast radio magnetotelluric (RMT) method for the exploration of near‐surface resources.     

3D resistivity gridding of large AEM datasets: A step toward enhanced geological interpretation

We develop a technique allowing 3D gridding of large sets of 1D resistivity models obtained after inversion of extensive airborne EM surveys. The method is based on the assumption of a layered-earth model. 2D kriging is used for interpolation of geophysical model parameters and their corresponding uncertainties. The 3D grid is created from the interpolated data, its structure accurately follows the geophysical model, providing a lightweight file for a good rendering. Propagation of errors is tracked through the quantification of uncertainties from both inversion and interpolation procedures. The 3D grid is exported to a portable standard, which allows flexible visualization and volumetric computations, and improves interpretation. The method is validated and illustrated by a case-study on Santa Cruz Island, in the Galapagos Archipelago.     

3D joint inversion of magnetotelluric and airborne tipper data: a case study from the Morrison porphyry Cu–Au–Mo deposit,British Columbia,Canada

Z‐axis tipper electromagnetic and broadband magnetotelluric data were used to determine three‐dimensional electrical resistivity models of the Morrison porphyry Cu–Au–Mo deposit in British Columbia. Z‐axis tipper electromagnetic data are collected with a helicopter, thus allowing rapid surveys with uniform spatial sampling. Ground‐based magnetotelluric surveys can achieve a greater exploration depth than Z‐axis tipper electromagnetic surveys, but data collection is slower and can be limited by difficult terrain. The airborne Z‐axis tipper electromagnetic tipper data and the ground magnetotelluric tipper data show good agreement at the Morrison deposit despite differences in the data collection method, spatial sampling, and collection date. Resistivity models derived from individual inversions of the Z‐axis tipper electromagnetic tipper data and magnetotelluric impedance data contain some similar features, but the Z‐axis tipper electromagnetic model appears to lack resolution below a depth of 1 km, and the magnetotelluric model suffers from non‐uniform and relatively sparse spatial sampling. The joint Z‐axis tipper electromagnetic inversion solves these issues by combining the dense spatial sampling of the airborne Z‐axis tipper electromagnetic technique and the deeper penetration of the lower frequency magnetotelluric data. The resulting joint resistivity model correlates well with the known geology and distribution of alteration at the Morrison deposit. Higher resistivity is associated with the potassic alteration zone and volcanic country rocks, whereas areas of lower resistivity agree with known faults and sedimentary units. The pyrite halo and ≥0.3% Cu zone have the moderate resistivity that is expected of disseminated sulphides. The joint Z‐axis tipper electromagnetic inversion provides an improved resistivity model by enhancing the lateral and depth resolution of resistivity features compared with the individual Z‐axis tipper electromagnetic and magnetotelluric inversions. This case study shows that a joint Z‐axis tipper electromagnetic–magnetotelluric approach effectively images the interpreted mineralised zone at the Morrison deposit and could be beneficial in exploration for disseminated sulphides at other porphyry deposits.     

Assessing hydrological model predictive uncertainty using stochastically generated geological models

In distributed and coupled surface water–groundwater modelling, the uncertainty from the geological structure is unaccounted for if only one deterministic geological model is used. In the present study, the geological structural uncertainty is represented by multiple, stochastically generated geological models, which are used to develop hydrological model ensembles for the Norsminde catchment in Denmark. The geological models have been constructed using two types of field data, airborne geophysical data and borehole well log data. The use of airborne geophysical data in constructing stochastic geological models and followed by the application of such models to assess hydrological simulation uncertainty for both surface water and groundwater have not been previously studied. The results show that the hydrological ensemble based on geophysical data has a lower level of simulation uncertainty, but the ensemble based on borehole data is able to encapsulate more observation points for stream discharge simulation. The groundwater simulations are in general more sensitive to the changes in the geological structure than the stream discharge simulations, and in the deeper groundwater layers, there are larger variations between simulations within an ensemble than in the upper layers. The relationship between hydrological prediction uncertainties measured as the spread within the hydrological ensembles and the spatial aggregation scale of simulation results has been analysed using a representative elementary scale concept. The results show a clear increase of prediction uncertainty as the spatial scale decreases. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Advancing process‐based watershed hydrological research using near‐surface geophysics: a vision for,and review of,electrical and magnetic geophysical methods

We want to develop a dialogue between geophysicists and hydrologists interested in synergistically advancing process based watershed research. We identify recent advances in geophysical instrumentation, and provide a vision for the use of electrical and magnetic geophysical instrumentation in watershed scale hydrology. The focus of the paper is to identify instrumentation that could significantly advance this vision for geophysics and hydrology during the next 3–5 years. We acknowledge that this is one of a number of possible ways forward and seek only to offer a relatively narrow and achievable vision. The vision focuses on the measurement of geological structure and identification of flow paths using electrical and magnetic methods. The paper identifies instruments, provides examples of their use, and describes how synergy between measurement and modelling could be achieved. Of specific interest are the airborne systems that can cover large areas and are appropriate for watershed studies. Although airborne geophysics has been around for some time, only in the last few years have systems designed exclusively for hydrological applications begun to emerge. These systems, such as airborne electromagnetic (EM) and transient electromagnetic (TEM), could revolutionize hydrogeological interpretations. Our vision centers on developing nested and cross scale electrical and magnetic measurements that can be used to construct a three‐dimensional (3D) electrical or magnetic model of the subsurface in watersheds. The methodological framework assumes a ‘top down’ approach using airborne methods to identify the large scale, dominant architecture of the subsurface. We recognize that the integration of geophysical measurement methods, and data, into watershed process characterization and modelling can only be achieved through dialogue. Especially, through the development of partnerships between geophysicists and hydrologists, partnerships that explore how the application of geophysics can answer critical hydrological science questions, and conversely provide an understanding of the limitations of geophysical measurements and interpretation. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Numerical analysis of seismoelectric wave propagation in spatially confined geological units

Using numerical modelling, we investigate the evolution of seismoelectric effects induced by seismic excitation in spatially confined lithological units. Typical geometries represent clay lenses embedded in an aquifer or petroleum deposits in a host rock. In fluid‐saturated rocks, seismic waves can generate electromagnetic fields due to electrokinetic coupling mechanisms associated with such processes in the vicinity of the fluid‐mineral interface. Two seismoelectric phenomena are investigated: (1) the co‐seismic field associated with the seismic displacement at each point in a subsurface and (2) the interface response generated at layer boundaries. Our modelling uses a simplified time‐domain formulation of the coupled problem and an efficient 2D finite‐element implementation. To gain insight into the morphogenetic field behaviour of the seismoelectric effects, several numerical simulations for various target geometries were treated. Accordingly, we varied both the thickness of the confined units and the value of the electrical bulk conductivity in porous media. Analysis of these effects shows differences between interface responses for electrically conductive versus resistive units. So the pertinent contrast in electrical bulk conductivity controls the shape and structure of these seismoelectric conversion patterns. Moreover, the seismoelectric interface response captures both the petrophysical and geometrical characteristics of the geological unit. These models demonstrate the value of using seismoelectric interface response for reservoir characterization in either hydrogeological or hydrocarbon exploration studies.     

A comparison of helicopter-borne electromagnetics in frequency- and time-domain at the Cuxhaven valley in Northern Germany

Two different airborne electromagnetic methods were applied in the same area: the frequency-domain helicopter-borne electromagnetic (HEM) system operated by the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Germany, and the time-domain SkyTEM system of the HydroGeophysics Group at the University of Aarhus, Denmark. For verification of and comparison with the airborne methods, ground-based transient electromagnetics and 2-D resistivity surveying were carried out. The target of investigation was the Cuxhaven valley in Northern Germany, which is a significant local groundwater reservoir. The course of this buried valley was revealed by drillings and the shape was determined by reflection seismics at several cross sections.We applied electrical and electromagnetic methods to investigate the structure of the valley filling consisting of gravel, sand, silt and clay. The HEM survey clearly outlines a shallow conductor at about 20m depth and a deeper conductor below 40m depth inside the valley. This is confirmed by 2-D resistivity surveying and a drilling. The thickness of the deeper conductor, however, is not revealed due to the limited investigation depth of the HEM system. The SkyTEM survey does not resolve the shallow conductor, but it outlines the thickness of the deeper clay layer inside the valley and reveals a conductive layer at about 180m depth outside the valley. The SkyTEM results are very consistent with ground-based transient electromagnetic soundings.Airborne electromagnetic surveying in general has the advantage of fast resistivity mapping with high lateral resolution. The HEM system is cost-efficient and fast, but the more expensive and slower SkyTEM system provides a higher depth of investigation. Ground-based geophysical surveys are often more accurate, but they are definitively slower than airborne surveys. It depends on targets of interest, time, budget, and manpower available by which a method or combination of methods will be chosen. A combination of different methods is useful to obtain a detailed understanding of the subsurface resistivity distribution.     

Delineation of a quick clay zone at Smørgrav,Norway, with electromagnetic methods under geotechnical constraints

In many coastal areas of North America and Scandinavia, post-glacial clay sediments have emerged above sea level due to iso-static uplift. These clays are often destabilised by fresh water leaching and transformed to so-called quick clays as at the investigated area at Smørgrav, Norway. Slight mechanical disturbances of these materials may trigger landslides. Since the leaching increases the electrical resistivity of quick clay as compared to normal marine clay, the application of electromagnetic (EM) methods is of particular interest in the study of quick clay structures.For the first time, single and joint inversions of direct-current resistivity (DCR), radiomagnetotelluric (RMT) and controlled-source audiomagnetotelluric (CSAMT) data were applied to delineate a zone of quick clay. The resulting 2-D models of electrical resistivity correlate excellently with previously published data from a ground conductivity metre and resistivity logs from two resistivity cone penetration tests (RCPT) into marine clay and quick clay. The RCPT log into the central part of the quick clay identifies the electrical resistivity of the quick clay structure to lie between 10 and 80 Ω m. In combination with the 2-D inversion models, it becomes possible to delineate the vertical and horizontal extent of the quick clay zone. As compared to the inversions of single data sets, the joint inversion model exhibits sharper resistivity contrasts and its resistivity values are more characteristic of the expected geology. In our preferred joint inversion model, there is a clear demarcation between dry soil, marine clay, quick clay and bedrock, which consists of alum shale and limestone.     

Quasi-2D hybrid joint inversion of seismic and geoelectric data

Many joint inversion schemes use 1D forward modelling in the integrated interpretation of various geophysical data. In extending the joint inversion approach to the investigation of 2D structures, the discretization of the model parameters and the appropriate choice of the forward‐modelling procedure play a very important role. In this paper, a hybrid seismic–geoelectric joint inversion method is proposed for the investigation of 2D near‐surface geological structures. The electric and seismic models are coupled together through the use of common boundaries between the adjacent layers. Assuming a 2D model composed of homogeneous layers with curved boundaries, a fast ray‐tracing algorithm is used for the calculation of refraction seismic traveltime data. In the geoelectric forward modelling, a locally 1D approximation is used. The boundary surfaces are written in the form of series expansion; the inversion algorithms are formulated for the expansion coefficients and the petrophysical parameters as unknowns. Two versions of the inversion method are proposed: in versions A and B, interval‐wise constant functions and Chebyshev polynomials are, respectively, used as basis functions of the series expansion. The versions are tested by means of synthetic and in situ measured data. The tests show that both methods are stable and accurate.