Evidence for Mg-rich carbonates on Mars from a 3.9 μm absorption feature

The origin and nature of the early atmosphere of Mars is still debated. The discovery of sulfate deposits on the surface, coupled with the evidence that there are not large abundances of carbonates detectable on Mars in the optically accessible part of the regolith, leaves open different paleoclimatic evolutionary pathways. Even if carbonates are responsible for the feature observed by TES and Mini-TES at 6.76 μm, alternative hypotheses suggest that it could be due to the presence of Hydrated Iron Sulfates (HIS). Carbonates can be discerned from HIS by investigating the spectral region in which a strong overtone carbonate band is present. The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer on board the Mars Express spacecraft has acquired several thousand martian spectra in the range 1.2-45 μm since January 2004, most of which show a weak absorption feature between 3.8 and 4 μm. A similar feature was observed previously from the Earth, but its origin could not be straightforwardly ascribed to surface materials, and specifically to carbonates. Here we show the surficial nature of this band that can be ascribed to carbonate mixed with the martian soil materials. The materials that best reproduce the detected feature are Mg-rich carbonates (huntite [CaMg₃(CO₃)₄] and/or magnesite [MgCO₃]). The presence of carbonates is demonstrated in both bright and dark martian regions. An evaluation of the likeliest abundance gives an upper limit of ∼10 wt%. The widespread distribution of carbonates supports scenarios that suggest carbonate formation occurred not by precipitation in a water-rich environment but by weathering processes.     

UVolution, a photochemistry experiment in low earth orbit: Investigation of the photostability of carbonates exposed to martian-like UV radiation conditions

The detection and identification of carbonates on Mars are of prime importance to establish the evolution of its atmosphere, correlated to the history of the liquid water, or even to determine the existence of a possible ancient biological activity. Till date, no large deposits of carbonates have been found. In fact, their detection is specific to local areas and in very low amounts. The absence of such deposits is commonly attributed to the harsh environmental conditions at the surface of Mars. Additionally, the presence of UV radiation has been proposed to explain their photodecomposition and hence their absence. However, contradictory results from laboratory experiments mimicking Mars’ surface UV radiation did not resolve the behaviour of carbonates in such an environment, which is why we exposed, in low Earth orbit and in laboratory experiments, both abiotic and biotic calcium carbonates to UV radiation of wavelength above 200 nm, the same spectral distribution as the one reaching the surface of Mars. For low Earth orbit (LEO) exposure, this was done for the UVolution experiment on board the BIOPAN ESA module, which was set outside a Russian Foton automated capsule, and exposed to space conditions for 12 days in September 2007. The targeted carbonates are biominerals and abiotic samples. Our laboratory results mainly show that the exposed carbonates appear to be stable to UV radiation if directly exposed to it. The LEO experiment results tend to the same conclusion, but the integrated exposition time to Solar UV during the experiment is not sufficient to be conclusive. However, the stability of the biominerals derived from the laboratory experiment could strengthen the interest to explore deeper their potential as life records at Mars. Hence, they should be considered as primary targets for in situ analyses during future missions.     

An analysis of open-basin lake deposits on Mars: Evidence for the nature of associated lacustrine deposits and post-lacustrine modification processes

A large number of candidate open-basin lakes (low-lying regions with both inlet valleys and an outlet valley) have been identified and mapped on Mars and are fed by valley network systems that were active near the Noachian–Hesperian boundary. The nature of processes that modified the open-basin lake interiors subsequent to lacustrine activity, and how frequently sedimentary deposits related to lacustrine activity remain exposed, has not been extensively examined. An analysis of 226 open-basin lakes was undertaken to identify evidence for: (1) exposed deposits of possible lacustrine origin and (2) post-lacustrine-activity processes that may have modified or resurfaced open-basin lakes. Spectroscopic data from the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) instrument were analyzed over identified exposed open-basin lake deposits to assess the mineralogy of these deposits. Particular attention was paid to the possible detection of any component of aqueous alteration minerals (e.g. phyllosilicates, hydrated silica, zeolites) or evaporites (e.g. carbonates, sulfates, chlorides) associated with these exposed deposits. The aim of this paper is to act as a broad survey and cataloguing of the types of lacustrine and post-lacustrine deposits that are present within these 226 paleolake basins. Results of the morphologic classification indicate that 79 open-basin lakes (～35% of the population) contain exposed deposits of possible lacustrine origin, identified on the basis of fan/delta deposits, layered deposits and/or exposed floor material of apparent lacustrine origin. Additionally, all 226 open-basin lakes examined appear to have been at least partially resurfaced subsequent to their formation by several processes, including volcanism, glacial and periglacial activity, impact cratering and aeolian activity. Results from the analysis of CRISM data show that only 10 (～29% of the 34 deposits with CRISM coverage) of the exposed open-basin lake deposits contain positively identified aqueous alteration minerals, with one deposit also containing evaporites. The identified hydrated and evaporite minerals include Fe/Mg-smectite, kaolinite, hydrated silica and carbonate, with Fe/Mg-smectite the most commonly identified mineral. These results indicate that hydrated and evaporite minerals are not as commonly associated with lacustrine deposits on Mars as they are on Earth. This suggests in situ alteration and mineral precipitation, a common source of such minerals in terrestrial lakes, was not a major process occurring in these paleo-lacustrine systems, and that the observed minerals are likely to be present as transported material within the lacustrine deposits. The lack of widespread in situ alteration also suggests that either the water chemistry in these paleolake systems was not conducive to aqueous alteration and mineral precipitation, or that the open-basin lake systems were relatively short-lived.     

Spectral reflectance properties of carbonates from terrestrial analogue environments: Implications for Mars

Spectroscopic analysis of carbonate-bearing samples from a variety of terrestrial environments provides important insights into spectroscopy-based investigations of Mars designed to detect the presence of carbonate minerals. In order to better address the spectral detectability of carbonates on Mars, we examined the spectral reflectance properties of carbonates and carbonate-bearing lithologies from a variety of terrestrial environments, including impact structures (Haughton, St. Martin, Eagle Butte), landslides (Frank), quarrying operations (Hecla), carbonates affected by weathering (Haughton, East German Creek), and sulfide-sulfate-carbonate assemblages (Central Manitoba). The goal is to identify processes and environments that can affect spectroscopy-based carbonate detection, for more detailed follow-on studies. Common carbonates appear to be stable, from a spectroscopic perspective, to various tectonic processes. Iron oxides/hydroxides do not appear to significantly affect spectral detectability of carbonates, as the spectrum-altering effects of these phases are largely restricted to the region below ∼1 μm, while useful carbonate absorption bands occur longward of ∼1.8 μm. Carbonate detection and characterization in the 0.35-2.5-μm region is largely restricted to a single absorption feature in the 2.3-μm region, which can be problematic for robust carbonate identification. While tectonic processes and iron oxide/hydroxide staining do not appear to significantly impair carbonate detection based on the 2.3-μm region absorption band, a number of other factors can affect carbonate detection. These include the fact that this absorption band is weak compared to many other minerals, a number of other minerals also exhibit absorption bands in this wavelength region (leading to possible misidentifications), and that even small abundances of minerals that absorb strongly in this region will reduce the strength of the carbonate absorption band. Identifying the nature of accessory minerals associated with carbonates can be used to constrain possible formation environments. Ongoing research at carbonate-bearing terrestrial analogue sites will continue to provide new insights into the occurrence and detection of carbonates on Mars.     

The Utopia/Isidis overlap: Possible conduit for mud volcanism on Mars

The largest areal concentration of pitted cones on Mars is located in the southwest section of Utopia basin. This particular area of pitted cones has been attributed to mud volcanism; several factors may have facilitated extensive mud volcanism at this location. The concentration of pitted cones is located where Utopia basin intersects Isidis basin; both features are multi-ring impact basins. On Earth, seismic investigations have shown that the outer rings of the Chicxulub multi-ring impact basin extend to the Mohorovi?i? discontinuity (Moho). If this is true on Mars as well, the fractures could act as conduits for water from Utopia Planitia, the site of a large, putative water body. It has been shown that methane can be generated at the mantle on Earth. On Mars this possible source of methane could combine with the infiltrated water to generate clathrates. While methane is not currently being released at the location of the pitted cones it could have been in the past. Three locations of methane release have been observed on Mars, two of which are located on the same outer ring of Isidis basin that intersects the pitted cone population. The area of Utopia basin that contains the large population of pitted cones is adjacent to the highland/lowland boundary where extensive deposition would have occurred. Extensive deposition combined with the potential for methane release may have contributed to the large population of pitted cones in this area of the Utopia basin.     

The environment of early Mars and the missing carbonates

Abstract– A model is presented in which the aqueous conditions needed to generate phyllosilicate minerals in the absence of carbonates found in the ancient Noachian crust are maintained by an early CO₂‐rich atmosphere, that, together with iron (II) oxidation, would prevent carbonate formation at the surface. After cessation of the internal magnetic dynamo, a CO₂‐rich primordial atmosphere was stripped by interactions with the solar wind and surface conditions evolved from humid to arid, with ground waters partially dissolving subsurface carbonate and sulfide minerals to produce acid‐sulfate evaporitic deposits in areas with upwelling ground water. In a subsequent geochemical state (Late Noachian to Hesperian), surface and subsurface acidic solutions were neutralized in the subsurface through interaction with basaltic crust, allowing the precipitation of secondary carbonates. This model suggests that, in the early Noachian, the surface waters of Mars maintained acidity because of a drop in temperature. This would have favored increased dissolution of CO₂ and a reduction in atmospheric pressure. In this scenario, physicochemical conditions precluded the formation of surface carbonates, but induced the precipitation of carbonates in the subsurface.     

The case for a wet,warm climate on early Mars

Theoretical arguments are presented in support of the idea that Mars possessed a dense CO₂ atmosphere and a wet, warm climate early in its history. Calculations with a one-dimensional radiative-convective climate model indicate that CO₂ pressures between 1 and 5 bars would have been required to keep the surface temperature above the freezing point of water early in the planet's history. The higher value corresponds to globally and orbitally averaged conditions and a 30% reduction in solar luminosity; the lower value corresponds to conditions at the equator during perihelion at times of high orbital eccentricity and the same reduced solar luminosity.The plausibility of such a CO₂ greenhouse is tested by formulating a simple model of the CO₂ geochemical cycle on early Mars. By appropriately scaling the rate of silicate weathering on present Earth, we estimate a weathering time constant of the order of several times 10⁷ years for early Mars. Thus, a dense atmosphere could have persisted for a geologically significant time period (∼10⁹years) only if atmospheric CO₂ was being continuously resupplied. The most likely mechanism by which this might have been accomplished is the thermal decomposition of carbonate rocks induced directly and indirectly (through burial) by intense, global-scale volcanism. For plausible values of the early heat flux, the recycling time constant is also of the order of several times 10⁷ years. The amount of CO₂ dissolved in standing bodies of water was probably small; thus, the total surficial CO₂ inventory required to maintain these conditions was approximately 2 to 10 bars. The amount of CO₂ in Mars' atmosphere would eventually have dwindled, and the climate cooled, as the planet's internal heat engine ran down. A test for this theory will be provided by spectroscopic searches for carbonates in Mars' crust.     

Layered ejecta craters and the early water/ice aquifer on Mars

Abstract— A model for emplacement of deposits of impact craters is presented that explains the size range of Martian layered ejecta craters between 5 km and 60 km in diameter in the low and middle latitudes. The impact model provides estimates of the water content of crater deposits relative to volatile content in the aquifer of Mars. These estimates together with the amount of water required to initiate fluid flow in terrestrial debris flows provide an estimate of 21% by volume (7.6 × 10⁷km³) of water/ice that was stored between 0.27 and 2.5 km depth in the crust of Mars during Hesperian and Amazonian time. This would have been sufficient to supply the water for an ocean in the northern lowlands of Mars. The existence of fluidized craters smaller than 5 km diameter in some places on Mars suggests that volatiles were present locally at depths less than 0.27 km. Deposits of Martian craters may be ideal sites for searches for fossils of early organisms that may have existed in the water table if life originated on Mars.     

Instrument development to search for biomarkers on mars: Terrestrial acidophile, iron-powered chemolithoautotrophic communities as model systems

Recent findings by the MER rover opportunity confirming the presence of iron minerals that can only be formed in the presence of water emphasize the study of analogous environments to Mars on Earth. The study of chemolithoautotrophic communities living in acidic iron-rich habitats is highly relevant in order to identify Mars analog environment-specific biomarkers. Iron oxidizing bacteria like Leptospirillum ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans have ways of life for which it is feasible to identify a past or present hypothetical niche on Mars. We have developed a strategy for biomarker identification based on: (i) search for biosignatures on acid and metal-rich environments; (ii) development of an immunosensor microarray; and (iii) integration into an instrument for autonomous and remote operation. The instrument that we have built, called Signs Of LIfe Detector (SOLID), is capable of processing a variety of samples for the detection of specific biomarkers. Antibodies against several bacterial strains have been developed and tested in a microarray biosensor on SOLID. Tests with field samples have been successfully performed, allowing the detection of L. ferrooxidans, A. ferrooxidans present in sediment samples.     

Alteration minerals,fluids, and gases on early Mars: Predictions from 1‐D flow geochemical modeling of mineral assemblages in meteorite ALH 84001

Clay minerals, although ubiquitous on the ancient terrains of Mars, have not been observed in Martian meteorite Allan Hills (ALH) 84001, which is an orthopyroxenite sample of the early Martian crust with a secondary carbonate assemblage. We used a low‐temperature (20 °C) one‐dimensional (1‐D) transport thermochemical model to investigate the possible aqueous alteration processes that produced the carbonate assemblage of ALH 84001 while avoiding the coprecipitation of clay minerals. We found that the carbonate in ALH 84001 could have been produced in a process, whereby a low‐temperature (~20 °C) fluid, initially equilibrated with the early Martian atmosphere, moved through surficial clay mineral and silica‐rich layers, percolated through the parent rock of the meteorite, and precipitated carbonates (thereby decreasing the partial pressure of CO₂) as it evaporated. This finding requires that before encountering the unweathered orthopyroxenite host of ALH 84001, the fluid permeated rock that became weathered during the process. We were able to predict the composition of the clay minerals formed during weathering, which included the dioctahedral smectite nontronite, kaolinite, and chlorite, all of which have been previously detected on Mars. We also calculated host rock replacement in local equilibrium conditions by the hydrated silicate talc, which is typically considered to be a higher temperature hydrothermal phase on Earth, but may have been a common constituent in the formation of Martian soils through pervasive aqueous alteration. Finally, goethite and magnetite were also found to precipitate in the secondary alteration assemblage, the latter associated with the generation of H₂. Apparently, despite the limited water–rock interaction that must have led to the formation of the carbonates ~ 3.9 Ga ago, in the vicinity of the ALH 84001 source rocks, clay formation would have been widespread.     

Constraints on the composition of the martian south polar cap from gravity and topography

The polar caps of Mars have long been acknowledged to be composed of unknown proportions of water ice, solid CO₂ (dry ice), and dust. Gravity and topography data are here analyzed over the southern cap to place constraints on its density, and hence composition. Using a localized spectral analysis combined with a lithospheric flexure model of ice cap loading, the best fit density of the volatile-rich south polar layered deposits is found to be 1271 kg m⁻³ with 1-σ limits of 1166 and 1391 kg m⁻³. The best fit elastic thickness of this geologically young deposit is 140 km, though any value greater than 102 km can fit the observations. The best fit density implies that about 55% dry ice by volume could be sequestered in these deposits if they were completely dust free. Alternatively, if these deposits were completely free of solid CO₂, the dust content would be constrained to lie between about 14 and 28% by volume. The bulk thermal conductivity of the polar cap is not significantly affected by these maximum allowable concentrations of dust. However, even if a moderate quantity of solid CO₂ were present as horizontal layers, the bulk thermal conductivity of the polar cap would be significantly reduced. Reasonable estimates of the present day heat flow of Mars predict that dry ice beneath the thicker portions of the south polar cap would have melted. Depending on the quantity of solid CO₂ in these deposits today, it is even possible that water ice could melt where the cap is thickest. If independent estimates for either the dust or CO₂ content of the south polar cap could be obtained, and if radar sounding data could determine whether this polar cap is presently experiencing basal melting or not, it would be possible to use these observations to place tight constraints on the present day heat flow of Mars.     

Study of terrestrial fossils in phyllosilicate-rich soils: Implication in the search for biosignatures on Mars

The search for biosignatures in the soil of Mars is a major objective of the planet exploration, but the detection of such structures is not straightforward due to the degradation of the organic material. In a previous work our group has analyzed the spectral reaction to thermal processing of biomineral carbonate samples including fresh and fossil shells. We found that two terrestrial fossil shells collected from clay deposits preserve their biomineral characteristics much better than coeval fossils not embedded in clay layers.In the present paper we extend our analysis to a set of fossils found in three different terrestrial clay deposits. Our results confirm that the level of degradation may be much lower than the standard values if fossils are surrounded by clay minerals. As a result these fossils have a spectroscopic response to thermal treatment which make them much more distinguishable from their abiotic counterparts than coeval fossils not collected from clay deposits. This result implies that the phyllosilicates regions recently discovered on Mars may represent very interesting environments that can provide conditions favorable to preserve evidence of biomarkers, and hence can be regarded as good candidate locations for their detection.     

New evidence for persistent impact‐generated hydrothermal activity in the Miocene Ries impact structure,Germany

The extent of impact‐generated hydrothermal activity in the 24 km sized Ries impact structure has been controversially discussed. To date, mineralogical and isotopic investigations point to a restriction of hydrothermal activity to the impact‐melt bearing breccias, specifically the crater‐fill suevite. Here, we present new petrographic, geochemical, and isotopic data of postimpact carbonate deposits, which indicate a hydrothermal activity more extended than previously assumed. Specifically, carbonates of the Erbisberg, a spring mound located upon the inner crystalline ring of the crater, show travertine facies types not seen in any of the previously investigated sublacustrine soda lake spring mounds of the Ries basin. In particular, the streamer carbonates, which result from the encrustation of microbial filaments in subaerial spring effluents between 60 and 70 °C, are characteristic of a hydrothermal origin. While much of the primary geochemical and isotopic signatures in the mound carbonates have been obliterated by diagenesis, a postimpact calcite vein from brecciated gneiss of the subsurface crater floor revealed a flat rare earth element pattern with a clear positive Eu anomaly, indicating a hydrothermal fluid convection in the crater basement. Finally, the strontium isotope stratigraphic correlation of the travertine mound with the crater basin succession suggests a hydrothermal activity for about 250,000 yr after the impact, which would be much longer than previously assumed.     

Martian lake basins and lacustrine plains

Outflow channels and valley systems are evidence of water flow on the surface of Mars. Whenever there is a consequent flow of water on an irregular surface, temporary impoundment in surface depressions will form lakes. A classification of martian lake basins based on the location of the basin in respect to water sources is proposed. The classes are Type 1: Valley-head basins, Type 2: Intravalley basins, Type 3: Valley-terminal basins, and Type 4: Isolated basins.Martian lakes are ephemeral features. Many craters and irregular depressions impounded water only until the basins filled and overflowed. Water escaping by spillover rapidly cut crevasses in the downstream side of basins and drained the ponds. Clastic lacustrine sediments collected in the lakes as flowing water lost velocity and turbulence. Evaporitic deposits may be significant in those basins that were not rapidly drained. Sediments deposited in lake basins form smooth, featureless plains. Lacustrine plains are potentially candidate sites for Mars landings and for the search for evidence of ancient life.     

Stratigraphy, mineralogy, and origin of layered deposits inside Terby crater, Mars

The 174 km diameter Terby impact crater (28.0°S-74.1°E) located on the northern rim of the Hellas basin displays anomalous inner morphology, including a flat floor and light-toned layered deposits. An analysis of these deposits was performed using multiple datasets from Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, Mars Express and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter missions, with visible images for interpretation, near-infrared data for mineralogical mapping, and topography for geometry. The geometry of layered deposits was consistent with that of sediments that settled mainly in a sub-aqueous environment, during the Noachian period as determined by crater counts. To the north, the thickest sediments displayed sequences for fan deltas, as identified by 100 m to 1 km long clinoforms, as defined by horizontal beds passing to foreset beds dipping by 6-10° toward the center of the Terby crater. The identification of distinct sub-aqueous fan sequences, separated by unconformities and local wedges, showed the accumulation of sediments from prograding/onlapping depositional sequences, due to lake level and sediment supply variations. The mineralogy of several layers with hydrated minerals, including Fe/Mg phyllosilicates, supports this type of sedimentary environment. The volume of fan sediments was estimated as >5000 km³ (a large amount considering classical martian fan deltas such as Eberswalde (6 km³)) and requires sustained liquid water activity. Such a large sedimentary deposition in Terby crater is characteristic of the Noachian/Phyllosian period during which the environment favored the formation of phyllosilicates. The latter were detected by spectral data in the layered deposits of Terby crater in three distinct layer sequences. During the Hesperian period, the sediments experienced strong erosion, possibly enhanced by more acidic conditions, forming the current morphology with three mesas and closed depressions. Small fluvial valleys and alluvial fans formed subsequently, attesting to late fluvial processes dated as late Early to early Late Hesperian. After this late fluvial episode, the Terby impact crater was submitted to aeolian processes and permanent cold conditions with viscous flow features. Therefore, the Terby crater displays, in a single location, geologic features that characterize the three main periods of time on Mars, with the presence of one of the thickest sub-aqueous fan deposits reported on Mars. The filling of Terby impact crater is thus one potential “reference geologic cross-section” for Mars stratigraphy.     

Early Mars may have had a methanol ocean

The detection of gray crystalline hematite deposits on Mars by Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) has been used to argue for the presence of liquid water on Mars in the distant past. By methanol-thermal treatment of anhydrous FeCl₃ at low temperatures (70-160 °C), crystalline gray hematite with layered structure was synthesized, based on this result an alternative explanation for the origin of martian hematite deposits is suggested. Methane could be abundant in the early martian atmosphere; process such as photochemical oxidation of methane could result in the formation of ocean or pool of organic compounds such as methanol, which provides an environment for the formation of large-scale hematite deposits on Mars.     

A spectroscopic method for identifying terrestrial biocarbonates and application to Mars

Searching for traces of extinct and/or extant life on Mars is one of the major objectives for remote-sensing and in situ exploration of the planet. In previous laboratory works we have investigated the infrared spectral modifications induced by thermal processing on different carbonate samples, in the form of fresh shells and fossils of different ages, whose biotic origin is easily recognizable. The goal was to discriminate them from their abiotic counterparts. In general, it is difficult to identify biotic signatures, especially when the organisms inducing the carbonate precipitation have low fossilization potential (i.e. microbes, bacteria, archaea). A wide variety of microorganisms are implicated in carbonate genesis, and their direct characterization is very difficult to evaluate by traditional methods, both in ancient sedimentary systems and even in recent environments.In the present work we apply our analysis to problematic carbonate samples, in which there is no clear evidence of controlled or induced biomineralization. This analysis indicates a very likely biotic origin of the aragonite samples under study, in agreement with the conclusion previously reported by Guido et al. (2007) who followed a completely different approach based on a complex set of sedimentary, petrographic, geochemical and biochemical analyses. We show that our method is reliable for discriminating between biotic and abiotic carbonates, and therefore it is a powerful tool in the search for life on Mars in the next generation of space missions to the planet.     

Methane clathrate hydrates as a potential source for martian atmospheric methane

Small amounts of methane have been detected in the atmosphere of Mars, though the actual sources of the gas remain unknown. Thermodynamic conditions on Mars suggest that gas clathrate hydrate deposits might exist at the polar caps and in some areas of the planetary subsurface. We review the literature available on the detection of methane in the martian atmosphere and the presence of gas clathrate hydrates on Mars. The possibility of martian methane clathrate deposits is established, and initial sources for the sequestered methane are discussed. Based on correlated data and information from disparate sources, we conclude that subsurface methane clathrate deposits are a possible immediate source for the observed atmospheric methane on Mars.     

Basin-ring spacing on the Moon,Mercury, and Mars

Radial spacing between concentric rings of impact basins that lack central peaks is statistically similar and nonrandom on the Moon, Mercury, and Mars, both inside and outside the main ring. One spacing interval, (2.0 ± 0.3)^0.5D, or an integer multiple of it, dominates most basin rings. Three analytical approaches yield similar results from 296 remapped or newly mapped rings of 67 multi-ringed basins: least-squares of rank-grouped rings, least-squares of rank and ring diameter for each basin, and averaged ratios of adjacent rings. Analysis of 106 rings of 53 two-ring basins by the first and third methods yields an integer multiple (2 ×) of 2.0^0.5D. There are two exceptions: (1) Rings adjacent to the main ring of multi-ring basins are consistently spaced at a slightly, but significantly, larger interval, (2.1 ± 0.3)^0.5D; (2) The 88 rings of 44 protobasins (large peak-plus-inner-ring craters) are spaced at an entirely different interval (3.3 ± 0.6)^0.5D.The statistically constant and target-invariant spacing of so many rings suggests that this characteristic may constrain formational models of impact basins on the terrestrial planets. The key elements of such a constraint include: (1) ring positions may not have been located by the same process(es) that formed ring topography; (2) ring location and emplacement of ring topography need not be coeval; (3) ring location, but not necessarily the mode of ring emplacement, reflects one process that operated at the time of impact; and (4) the process yields similarly-disposed topographic features that are spatially discrete at 2^0.5D intervals, or some multiple, rather than continuous. These four elements suggest that some type of wave mechanism dominates the location, but not necessarily the formation, of basin rings. The waves may be standing, rather than travelling. The ring topography itself may be emplaced at impact by this and/or other mechanisms and may reflect additional, including post-impact, influences.     

Are Phobos and Deimos the result of a giant impact?

Despite many efforts an adequate theory describing the origin of Phobos and Deimos has not been realized. In recent years a number of separate observations suggest the possibility that the martian satellites may have been the result of giant impact. Similar to the Earth–Moon system, Mars has too much angular momentum. A planetesimal with 0.02 Mars masses must have collided with that planet early in its history in order for Mars to spin at its current rate (Dones, L., Tremaine, S. [1993]. Science 259, 350–354). Although subject to considerable error, current crater-scaling laws and an analysis of the largest known impact basins on the martian surface suggest that this planetesimal could have formed either the proposed 10,600 by 8500-km-diameter Borealis basin, the 4970-km-diameter Elysium basin, the 4500-km-diameter Daedalia basin or, alternatively, some other basin that is no longer identifiable. It is also probable that this object impacted Mars at a velocity great enough to vaporize rock (>7 km/s), which is necessary to place large amounts of material into orbit. If material vaporized from the collision with the Mars-spinning planetesimal were placed into orbit, an accretion disk would have resulted. It is possible that as material condensed and dissipated beyond the Roche limit forming small, low-mass satellites due to gravity instabilities within the disk. Once the accretion disk dissipated, tidal forces and libration would have pulled these satellites back down toward the martian surface. In this scenario, Phobos and Deimos would have been among the first two satellites to form, and Deimos the only satellite formed—and preserved—beyond synchronous rotation. The low mass of Phobos and Deimos is explained by the possibility that they are composed of loosely aggregated material from the accretion disk, which also implies that they do not contain any volatile elements. Their orbital eccentricity and inclination, which are the most difficult parameters to explain easily with the various capture scenarios, are the natural result of accretion from a circum-planetary disk.