两种垂直分层方法对GPS水汽层析结果的影响

利用北京房山地区9个全球定位系统测站组成的实验站网,研究GPS水汽层析网格的划分方法,采取垂直均匀和垂直非均匀两种分层方法,分析GPS层析网格垂直分层对水汽层析结果的影响。结果表明：均匀和非均匀垂直分层方法得到的GPS水汽层析结果是可靠的,均可以与探空水汽结果进行比较。但垂直非均匀分层更符合大气水汽的实际分布特征,层析解算精度更高,尤其对测站高度差较小的GPS站网,尽量选择垂直非均匀分层方法。垂直均匀和垂直非均匀分层方法均可以为北京地区GPS层析网格垂直划分提供参考。     

Tropospheric water vapour soundings by lidar at high Arctic latitudes

Ground-based lidars can provide continuous observations of tropospheric humidity profiles using the Raman scattering of light by water vapour and nitrogen molecules. We will present specific humidity profiles obtained at the high Arctic location Ny-Ålesund (Spitsbergen, 79°N). Under nighttime conditions the observations cover a range from about 500 m altitude up to the upper troposphere. Daylight limits the observations to the lower troposphere, depending on atmospheric transmission and the water vapour content. In a case study on 29 January, simultaneous observations of humidity and aerosol extinction show distinct differences in the various altitudes during the advection of aerosol-rich air masses. In the boundary layer, the aerosol is less affected by the humidity. In the free troposphere, the lidar ratio was observed to be up to 60 sr with some evidence for the uptake of water vapour by the aerosol particles. In another case study from 28 February 2002, the influence of the mean wind direction and the orography on the water vapour concentration near the ground and in the free troposphere will be discussed. During wintertime, a humidity inversion up to about 1.5 km altitude with dry air near the ground has frequently been found with wind from the southeast. Such local effects and small-scale structures observed by stationary lidar mostly cannot be resolved by other sounding methods like passive satellite soundings.     

Preliminary results of 4-D water vapor tomography in the troposphere using GPS

Slant-path water vapor amounts (SWV) from a station to all the GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites in view can be estimated by using a ground-based GPS receiver. In this paper, a tomographic method was utilized to retrieve the local horizontal and vertical structure of water vapor over a local GPS receiver network using SWV amounts as observables in the tomography. The method of obtaining SWV using ground-based GPS is described first, and then the theory of tomography using GPS is presented. A water vapor tomography experiment was made using a small GPS network in the Beijing region. The tomographic results were analyzed in two ways: (1) a pure GPS method, i.e., only using GPS observables as input to the tomography; (2) combining GPS observables with vertical constraints or a priori information, which come from average radiosonde measurements over three days. It is shown that the vertical structure of water vapor is well resolved with a priori information. Comparisons of profiles between radiosondes and GPS show that the RMS error of the tomography is about 1–2mm. It is demonstrated that the tomography can monitor the evolution of tropospheric water vapor in space and time. The vertical resolution of the tomography is tested with layer thicknesses of 600 m, 800 m and 1000 m. Comparisons with radiosondes show that the result from a resolution of 800m is slightly better than results from the other two resolutions in the experiment. Water vapor amounts recreated from the tomography field agree well with precipitable water vapor (PWV) calculated using GPS delays. Hourly tomographic results are also shown using the resolution of 800 m. Water vapor characteristics under the background of heavy rainfall development are analyzed using these tomographic results. The water vapor spatio-temporal structures derived from the GPS network show a great potential in the investigation of weather disasters.     

基于观测约束的地基犌犘犁三维水汽层析技术研究

全球定位系统(GPS)卫星信号穿过大气层时发生的偏折和延迟,可以用来反演信号传播路径上的大气水汽总量。为获取区域高精度的大气水汽三维分布,借助分布密集的地基GPS观测网及其斜路径水汽观测,建立新的观测约束层析模型,提出以高斯函数为水平约束,区域逐月多年探空观测为垂直约束,即以平均量为先验值,以标准偏差为权重矩阵的新方法;并在层析算法中引入地面观测,以提高整体尤其是低层反演精度。三维水汽层析网格模型基于长江中游鄂东区域的22站地基GPS加密网搭建,实时解算系统可逐时输出三维水汽产品。三维湿折射度和水汽密度可以分别由斜路径的湿延迟总量和水汽总量观测反演获得。以2010年开展的汛期联合加密探空观测为参照,对三维层析的总体反演精度、低层反演精度、层析区域中心与边缘反演精度进行了对比和分析。结果显示:整体样本检验三维水汽密度平均偏差为-0.63 g/m~3,标准偏差为1.22 g/m~3,与探空相关系数为0.98;水汽密度与探空资料的相关比湿折射度与探空资料的相关好;对于不同层析区域,中心区域观测元数量较为丰富,使得位于中心的层析精度好于整体和边缘;加入低层观测的层析结果与探空的相关比未加低层观测时的好,低层观测的加入提高了层析与探空的相关,减小了低层层析标准差、区域中心和2 km以上层析的均差,有效提高了反演精度;低层观测的加入对整体标准差的影响,可能与加剧观测方程中长度矩阵元素间的量级差异有关。     

Negative water vapour skewness and dry tongues in the convective boundary layer: observations and large-eddy simulation budget analysis

This study focuses on the intrusion of dry air into the convective boundary layer (CBL) originating from the top of the CBL. Aircraft in-situ measurements from the IHOP_2002 field campaign indicate a prevalence of negative skewness of the water vapour distribution within the growing daytime CBL over land. This negative skewness is interpreted according to large-eddy simulations (LES) as the result of descending dry downdrafts originating from above the mixed layer. LES are used to determine the statistical properties of these intrusions: their size and thermodynamical characteristics. A conditional sampling analysis demonstrates their significance in the retrieval of moisture variances and fluxes. The rapid CBL growth explains why greater negative skewness is observed during the growing phase: the large amounts of dry air that are quickly incorporated into the CBL prevent a full homogenisation by turbulent mixing. The boundary-layer warming in this phase also plays a role in the acquisition of negative buoyancy for these dry tongues, and thus possibly explains their kinematics in the lower CBL. Budget analysis helps to identify the processes responsible for the negative skewness. This budget study underlines the main role of turbulent transport, which distributes the skewness produced at the top or the bottom of the CBL into the interior of the CBL. The dry tongues contribute significantly to this turbulent transport.     

Influence of leaf water potential on diurnal changes in CO2 and water vapour fluxes

Mass and energy fluxes between the atmosphere and vegetation are driven by meteorological variables, and controlled by plant water status, which may change more markedly diurnally than soil water. We tested the hypothesis that integration of dynamic changes in leaf water potential may improve the simulation of CO₂ and water fluxes over a wheat canopy. Simulation of leaf water potential was integrated into a comprehensive model (the ChinaAgrosys) of heat, water and CO₂ fluxes and crop growth. Photosynthesis from individual leaves was integrated to the canopy by taking into consideration the attenuation of radiation when penetrating the canopy. Transpiration was calculated with the Shuttleworth-Wallace model in which canopy resistance was taken as a link between energy balance and physiological regulation. A revised version of the Ball-Woodrow-Berry stomatal model was applied to produce a new canopy resistance model, which was validated against measured CO₂ and water vapour fluxes over winter wheat fields in Yucheng (36°57′ N, 116°36′ E, 28 m above sea level) in the North China Plain during 1997, 2001 and 2004. Leaf water potential played an important role in causing stomatal conductance to fall at midday, which caused diurnal changes in photosynthesis and transpiration. Changes in soil water potential were less important. Inclusion of the dynamics of leaf water potential can improve the precision of the simulation of CO₂ and water vapour fluxes, especially in the afternoon under water stress conditions.     

IGS超快星历对GPS近实时反演水汽精度的影响研究

将IGS发布的超快星历与最终星历中卫星的坐标及钟差进行对比,初步验证IGS超快星历的精度。在此基础上,以美国国家海洋和大气局ARM实验中GPS连续运行参考站一周的观测数据作为实验对象,利用Bernese软件分别使用IGS最终星历以及超快星历进行GPS反演大气水汽含量的数据解算,将得到的基线精度以及对流层延迟值进行对比,结果表明采用最终星历和超快星历得到的基线精度基本相同,但对流层延迟值相差较大,并且差值较大的时刻一般出现在超快星历的外推时刻,并随着外推时间的增加逐渐增大。为此,本文设计了滑动式动态星历选择方案,通过实验验证,该优化方案能有效的提高近实时对流层延迟解算精度,满足GPS近实时反演大气水汽的精度要求。     

Testing of the bandpass eddy covariance method for a long-term measurement of water vapour flux over a forest

The bandpass eddy covariance method has been used to measure the turbulent flux of scalar quantities using a slow-responsescalar sensor. The method issimilar in principle to the traditional eddy correlation method but includes the estimation of high-frequency components of the flux on the basis of cospectral similarity in the atmospheric surface layer. In order to investigate the performance of the method, measurements of the water vapour flux over a forest with the bandpass eddy covariance method and the direct eddy correlation method were compared. The flux obtained by the bandpass eddy covariance method agreed with that by the eddy correlation method within ±20% for most cases, in spite of a rather slow sensor-response of the adopted hygrometer. This result supports its relevance to a long-term continuous operation, since a stable, low-maintenance,general-purpose sensor canbe utilized for scalar quantities. Oneweak point of the method isits difficulty in principle to measure the correct flux when the magnitude of the sensible heat flux is very small, because the method uses the sensible heat flux as a standard reference for the prediction of undetectable high-frequency components of the scalar flux. An advanced method is then presented to increase its robustness. In the new method, output signals from a slow-response sensor are corrected using empirical frequency-responsefunctions for the sensor,thereby extending the width of the bandpass frequency region where components of the flux are directly measured (not predicted). The advanced method produced correct fluxes for all cases including the cases of small sensible heat flux. The advanced bandpass eddy covariance method is thus appropriate for along-term measurement of the scalar fluxes.     

2017—2018年辽宁地区三次降雪天气的GPS水汽变化特征

利用欧洲中心（European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts,ECMWF） ERA-interim再分析资料、常规气象观测资料及GPS （Global Position System）系统探测的大气可降水量（Precipitable Water Vapor,PWV）资料,对2017—2018年辽宁地区三次中雪及以上量级的降雪过程中大气可降水量的演变特征进行分析。结果表明：三次降雪过程中PWV均呈现单峰式结构,其与小时降雪量之间存在较好的时间对应关系,降雪时段对应PWV高值阶段;在降雪出现前6—15 h,PWV迅速增加,且PWV总增长量与降雪强度存在较好的正相关关系。     

普适型GPS用于黄河盐锅峡水位监测分析

黄河水文变化复杂,现有水位监测方法费时费力且不能很好满足时间分辨率和空间分辨率两个方面的需求.地基GPS-IR技术的出现为水位监测提供了新的手段,但目前大多数地基GPS-IR技术采用的接收机为高精度大地测量型接收机,成本高、时效性差,不适合大范围推广.首先介绍了普适型GPS接收机的组成,并对GPS数据观测质量进行了分析;其次给出了地基GPS-IR技术用于水位监测的基本原理;最后利用黄河盐锅峡GPS实测数据进行GPS-IR水位提取,以兰州水文站水位监测数据为参考分析了普适型GPS接收机反演水位的精度,得到了最佳RMSE为0.21 m的精度.实验结果表明,普适型GPS接收机可用于长时间水位监测.     

GPS定位与水汽反演中对流层干延迟的订正研究

根据美国Shreveport地区及中国徐州地区2006年的气象探空资料计算了GPS测量中的大气干延迟,将其作为真值与目前常用的普适模型计算的延迟值进行对比,结果表明,目前常用的几种普适模型在美国Shreveport地区的改正效果要明显好于中国徐州地区,直接反映出普适模型更适合北美地区.利用徐州地区2000-2006年的探空数据计算了大气干延迟值,在此基础上,根据地面气象要素建立了徐州地区大气干延迟的局地订正模型.分析表明,局地订正模型的改正效果好于普适模型.     

成都地区秋、冬季GPS可降水量的时空分析

利用成都地区5个测站地基GPS2007年9月-2008年2月的观测数据,解算出1 min间隔的天顶总延迟,结合自动气象站资料计算出30 min间隔的大气可降水量(GPS-PWV).对月平均的GPS-PWV分析表明:秋、冬季变化趋势从9月开始下降,1月达到最小值,2月又逐渐上升.在大气环流相同的情况下,地理位置相近的站,海拔高的地区大气中的水汽量比海拔低的地区要少,且变化较大;海拔高度相近的站,大气中的水汽含量由南向北减少.日合成分析显示:在静稳天气下,日变化特征显著,具有双峰型特征:白天峰值与气温的最大值相对应;夜间峰值与降水量的峰值相对应;GPS-PWV与地面空气相对湿度白天呈负相关,夜间呈正相关.     

应用全球定位系统、太阳光度计和探空仪探测大气水汽总量的对比分析

介绍了应用全球定位系统(GPS)和太阳光度计估算大气水汽总量的方法。大气中的水汽会对GPS信号的传播造成显著的影响,故可以利用GPS观测估算水汽总量或可降水量(PW);在近红外940 nm波段,水汽对太阳直射辐射的吸收作用会直接影响到太阳光度计观测的信号,利用水汽吸收透过率与水汽量的关系,应用太阳光度计的辐射观测资料也可以反演出无云情况下的水汽总量。将锡林浩特观象台2008年5—7月的GPS、CE-318型太阳光度计和探空仪3种观测的水汽量进行了比较,三者对水汽量的变化趋势描述较为吻合,相关系数在0.88以上,说明GPS和太阳光度计都能捕捉到大气中的水汽变化信息;但在水汽量的具体数值上存在差异。统计分析表明:相对于探空来说,GPS-PW稍高于探空值约0.18 g/cm2,太阳光度计PW值则低于探空。太阳光度计便于携带,观测简便;GPS可全天观测无需标定,利用GPS-PW对太阳光度计反演中的模拟参数进行校正是一种可行的方法。     

引入地基GPS可降水量资料对一次西南涡暴雨水汽场的初步分析

利用成都地区4个地基GPS站遥感的大气可降水量(GPS-PWV)数据,结合自动气象站雨量和NCEP再分析等资料,对2008年7月20～22日一次由高原涡诱生西南涡引发的四川盆地暴雨过程的水汽变化进行了分析。结果表明,降水开始前GPS-PWV有一个急升过程,且与过程1h最大雨量有较好的对应关系,GPS-PWV的增幅和所达到的最大值可以较好地反映西南暖湿气流对四川盆地水汽的影响程度;而GPS-PWV的骤降则预示降水即将结束。西南涡在GPS-PWV急速上升之后形成于盆地;在其发展强盛时段,盆地处于低空水汽通量大值区和水汽辐合中心,随着西南涡的东移,GPS-PWV逐渐减小至最低水平。     

Moisture analysis of a squall line case based on precipitable water vapor data from a ground-based GPS network in the Yangtze River Delta

A squall line swept eastward across the area of the Yangtze River Delta and produced gusty winds and heavy rain from the afternoon to the evening of 24 August 2002. In this papers the roles of moisture in the genesis and development of the squall line were studied. Based on the precipitable water vapor （PWV） data from a ground-based GPS network over the Yangtze River Delta in China, plus data from a Pennsylvania State University/National Atmospheric Center （PSU/NCAR） mesoscale model （MM5） simulation, initialized by three-dimensional variational （3D-VAR） assimilation of the PWV data, some interesting features are revealed. During the 12 hours prior to the squall line arriving in the Shanghai area, a significant increase in PWV indicates a favorable moist environment for a squall line to develop. The vertical profile of the moisture illustrates that it mainly increased in the middle levels of the troposphere, and not at the surface. Temporal variation in PWV is a better precursor for squall line development than other surface meteorological parameters. The characteristics of the horizontal distribution of PWV not only indicated a favorable moist environment, but also evolved a cyclonic wind field for a squall line genesis and development. The ＂＋2 mm＂ contours of the three-hourly PWV variation can be used successfully to predict the location of the squall line two hours later.     

青藏高原东缘GPS水汽资料对暴雨模拟的影响分析

选取2009年6月30日发生在云南南部和湖南北部的强降水过程,利用WRF模式和建立在青藏高原东缘地区18个地基GPS站点观测的可降水量资料（GPS/PWV）进行同化试验.试验表明：选取全部18个站和云南省8个站GPS/PWV资料进行同化,发现下游地区的强降水区湖南北部降水强度发生较大变化.选取100.E附近的6个站GPS/PWV资料进行同化,发现下游地区的强降水区湖南北部降水强度变化不大.利用全部站点GPS/PWV资料,模式初始场大部分地区湿度增加,对应下游降水中心强度增加,少部分地区湿度减少,对应降水区域南移.GPS/PWV资料同化对模式初始场湿度场和高度场影响较大,而对温度和风场影响较小.     

Livestock production and the water challenge of future food supply: Implications of agricultural management and dietary choices

Human activities use more than half of accessible freshwater, above all for agriculture. Most approaches for reconciling water conservation with feeding a growing population focus on the cropping sector. However, livestock production is pivotal to agricultural resource use, due to its low resource-use efficiency upstream in the food supply chain. Using a global modelling approach, we quantify the current and future contribution of livestock production, under different demand- and supply-side scenarios, to the consumption of “green” precipitation water infiltrated into the soil and “blue” freshwater withdrawn from rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Currently, cropland feed production accounts for 38% of crop water consumption and grazing involves 29% of total agricultural water consumption (9990 km³ yr⁻¹). Our analysis shows that changes in diets and livestock productivity have substantial implications for future consumption of agricultural blue water (19–36% increase compared to current levels) and green water (26–69% increase), but they can, at best, slow down trends of rising water requirements for decades to come. However, moderate productivity reductions in highly intensive livestock systems are possible without aggravating water scarcity. Productivity gains in developing regions decrease total agricultural water consumption, but lead to expansion of irrigated agriculture, due to the shift from grassland/green water to cropland/blue water resources. While the magnitude of the livestock water footprint gives cause for concern, neither dietary choices nor changes in livestock productivity will solve the water challenge of future food supply, unless accompanied by dedicated water protection policies.     

Variational Assimilation of GPS Precipitable Water Vapor and Hourly Rainfall Observations for a Meso-β Scale Heavy Precipitation Event During the 2002 Mei-Yu Season

Recent advances in Global Positioning System （GPS） remote sensing technology allow for a direct estimation of the precipitable water vapor （PWV） from delayed signals transmitted by GPS satellites, which can be assimilated into numerical models with four-dimensional variational （4DVAR） data assimilation. A mesoscale model and its 4DVAR system are used to access the impacts of assimilating GPS-PWV and hourly rainfall observations on the short-range prediction of a heavy rainfall event on 20 June 2002. The heavy precipitation was induced by a sequence of meso-β-scale convective systems （MCS） along the mei-yu front in China. The experiments with GPS-PWV assimilation cluster and also eliminated the erroneous rainfall successfully simulated the evolution of the observed MCS systems found in the experiment without 4DVAR assimilation. Experiments with hourly rainfall assimilation performed similarly both on the prediction of MCS initiation and the elimination of erroneous systems, however the MCS dissipated much sooner than it did in observations. It is found that the assimilation-induced moisture perturbation and mesoscale low-level jet are helpful for the MCS generation and development. It is also discovered that spurious gravity waves may post serious limitations for the current 4DVAR algorithm, which would degrade the assimilation efficiency, especially for rainfall data. Sensitivity experiments with different observations, assimilation windows and observation weightings suggest that assimilating GPS-PWV can be quite effective, even with the assimilation window as short as 1 h. On the other hand, assimilating rainfall observations requires extreme cautions on the selection of observation weightings and the control of spurious gravity waves.     

Water on an urban planet: Urbanization and the reach of urban water infrastructure

Urban growth is increasing the demand for freshwater resources, yet surprisingly the water sources of the world's large cities have never been globally assessed, hampering efforts to assess the distribution and causes of urban water stress. We conducted the first global survey of the large cities’ water sources, and show that previous global hydrologic models that ignored urban water infrastructure significantly overestimated urban water stress. Large cities obtain 78 ± 3% of their water from surface sources, some of which are far away: cumulatively, large cities moved 504 billion liters a day (184 km³ yr⁻¹) a distance of 27,000 ± 3800 km, and the upstream contributing area of urban water sources is 41% of the global land surface. Despite this infrastructure, one in four cities, containing $4.8 ± 0.7 trillion in economic activity, remain water stressed due to geographical and financial limitations. The strategic management of these cities’ water sources is therefore important for the future of the global economy.     

星载降水雷达机载校飞试验：地基多通道微波辐射计估算雷达路径积分衰减

介绍了在雷达观测降水试验中如何配合利用地基微波辐射计估算雷达路径积分衰减(PIA)的一种方法.所用的GPS高空探空资料和地基多通道微波辐射计的观测资料,均为中国首次星载降水雷达机载校飞试验中获得的数据.由于常规探空资料中没有云水含量的直接信息,因此,通过绝热液态水含量分析方法,从GPS探空数据中计算得到这些云参数值.用MWMOD进行亮温模拟并计算液态水含量.在晴空条件下,用该模式模拟了地基多通道微波辐射计12个通道的下行辐射亮温.通过设置相对湿度阈值,利用MWMOD模式自带的绝热液态水含量分析方法,从探空廓线中分析出液态水廓线,进而模拟出有云情况下的下行辐射亮温.辐射传输模式的模拟亮温和地基多通道微波辐射计观测亮温的对比表明,进行云分析之后的模拟亮温值更接近于实测值.由此,利用由辐射传输模式和地基微波辐射计,从探空廓线中分析出液态水廓线,计算出有云情况下的大气整层透过率,进而得到路径积分衰减,为降水雷达衰减订正提供一种有效手段.