The potential for convection and implications for geothermal energy in the Perth Basin, Western Australia

Convection of groundwater in aquifers can create areas of anomalously high temperature at shallow depths which could be exploited for geothermal energy. Temperature measurements in the Perth Basin (Western Australia) reveal thermal patterns that are consistent with convection in the Yarragadee Aquifer. This observation is supported by Rayleigh number calculations, which show that convection is possible within the range of aquifer thickness, geothermal gradient, salinity gradient and permeability encountered in the Yarragadee Aquifer, assuming that the aquifer can be treated as a homogeneous anisotropic layer. Numerical simulations of convection in a simplified model of the Yarragadee Aquifer show that: (1) the spacing of convective upwellings can be predicted from aquifer thickness and permeability anisotropy; (2) convective upwellings may be circular or elongate in plan view; (3) convective upwellings create significant temperature enhancements relative to the conductive profile; (4) convective flow rates are similar to regional groundwater flow rates; and (5) convection homogenises salinity within the aquifer. Further work is required to constrain the average horizontal and vertical permeability of the Yarragadee Aquifer, to assess the validity of treating the aquifer as a homogeneous anisotropic layer, and to determine the impact of realistic aquifer geometry and advection on convection.     

松辽盆地营城组火山岩储层流动单元特征和控制因素

根据孔隙度、渗透率、储层品质指数(RQI)、流动层带指数(FZI)4个参数对XS1井区白垩系营城组火山岩的388个样品进行聚类分析,通过对聚类结果与各井产气情况的对比将储层流动单元划分为4类,所占比例依次为39.2%(Ⅲ类)、33.2%(Ⅱ类)、25.0%(Ⅰ类)、2.6%(Ⅳ类)。Ⅰ类储层流动单元多为高孔高渗、高孔中渗和中孔高渗储层,厚度范围为10～20m;Ⅱ类储层流动单元多为中孔高渗、高孔中渗和低孔高渗储层,厚度范围为10～47m;Ⅲ类储层流动单元多为中孔高渗、中孔低渗和低孔中渗储层,厚度范围为11～86m;Ⅳ类储层流动单元为低孔低渗和特低孔特低渗储层,厚度小于10m。火山岩储层流动单元发育和分布受火山机构相带和火山岩亚相的控制,表现为火山口-近火山口相带成为Ⅰ、Ⅱ类储层流动单元的机率最大,近源相带成为Ⅱ、Ⅲ类储层流动单元的机率最大,远源相带成为Ⅲ类和Ⅳ类储层流动单元的机率最大。原生气孔发育的上部亚相和粒间孔发育的热碎屑流亚相形成Ⅰ类储层流动单元的机率最大,原生孔隙不发育的空落亚相和下部亚相形成Ⅲ类储层流动单元的机率大。实现了火山岩储层流动单元的单井识别,为其三维模型的建立提供依据。     

Temperature-driven groundwater convection in cold climates

The aim was to study density-driven groundwater flow and analyse groundwater mixing because of seasonal changes in groundwater temperature. Here, density-driven convection in groundwater was studied by numerical simulations in a subarctic climate, i.e. where the water temperature was <4 °C. The effects of soil permeability and groundwater temperature (i.e. viscosity and density) were determined. The influence of impermeable obstacles in otherwise homogeneous ground was also studied. An initial disturbance in the form of a horizontal groundwater flow was necessary to start the convection. Transient solutions describe the development of convective cells in the groundwater and it took 22 days before fully developed convection patterns were formed. The thermal convection reached a maximum depth of 1.0 m in soil of low permeability (2.71 · 10^?9 m²). At groundwater temperature close to its density maximum (4 °C), the physical size (in m) of the convection cells was reduced. Small stones or frost lenses in the ground slightly affect the convective flow, while larger obstacles change the size and shape of the convection cells. Performed simulations show that “seasonal groundwater turnover” occurs. This knowledge may be useful in the prevention of nutrient leakage to underlying groundwater from soils, especially in agricultural areas where no natural vertical groundwater flow is evident. An application in northern Sweden is discussed.     

中国深层和超深层碳酸盐岩油气藏形成分布的基本特征与动力机制及发展方向

随着油气资源对外依赖度加大,中国的油气勘探已经拓展到深层和超深层领域,并相继在中西部盆地发现了塔河、普光、安岳、靖边、顺北等一批大型油气田,展示出广阔的勘探前景。中国已探明的深层和超深层碳酸盐岩油气藏特征与全球的有很大差异,经典的油气地质理论指导这类油气田勘探遇到了前所未有的重大挑战,需要完善和发展。通过调研和比较全球已探明的碳酸盐岩和砂岩油气藏地质特征,发现它们的油气来源条件、油气藏形成条件、成藏动力、演化过程特征等类同;同时,发现碳酸盐岩和砂岩油气藏的矿物组成、孔隙度和渗透率随埋深变化特征、孔渗结构特征、储层物性下限、油气藏类型等有着很大不同。中国深层和超深层碳酸盐岩油气藏与全球的相比较具有五方面差异:地层年代更老、埋藏深度更大、白云岩储层比率更大、天然气资源比率更高、储层孔渗关系更乱。中国已经发现的深层碳酸盐岩油气藏成因类型可以归为五种:沉积型高孔高渗油气藏、压实成岩型低孔低渗油气藏、结晶成岩型低孔低渗油气藏、流体改造型高孔低渗油气藏、应力改造型低孔高渗油气藏;它们形成的动力学机制分别与地层沉积和浮力主导的油气运移作用、地层压实和非浮力主导的油气运移作用、成岩结晶和非浮力主导的油气运移作用、流体改造介质和浮力主导的油气运移作用、应力改造和浮力主导的油气运移作用等密切相关。中国深层和超深层碳酸盐岩油气藏勘探发展的有利领域和油气藏类型主要有三个:一是低热流盆地浮力成藏下限之上自由动力场形成的高孔高渗常规油气藏;二是构造变动频繁的叠合盆地内外应力和内部流体活动改造而形成的缝洞复合型油气藏;三是构造稳定盆地内局限动力场形成的广泛致密连续型非常规油气藏。改造类非常规致密碳酸盐岩油气藏是中国含油气盆地深层和超深层油气资源的主要类型:它们叠加了早期形成的常规油气藏特征,又具有自身广泛连续分布的非常规特征,还经受了后期构造变动的改造;复杂的分布特征,致密的介质条件和高温高压环境使得这类油气资源勘探开发难度大、成本高。      

Numerical analysis of the hydrogeologic controls in a layered coastal aquifer system, Oahu, Hawaii, USA

 The coastal aquifer system of southern Oahu, Hawaii, USA, consists of highly permeable volcanic aquifers overlain by weathered volcanic rocks and interbedded marine and terrestrial sediments of both high and low permeability. The weathered volcanic rocks and sediments are collectively known as caprock, because they impede the free discharge of groundwater from the underlying volcanic aquifers. A cross-sectional groundwater flow and transport model was used to evaluate the hydrogeologic controls on the regional flow system in southwestern Oahu. Controls considered were: (a) overall caprock hydraulic conductivity; and (b) stratigraphic variations of hydraulic conductivity in the caprock. Within the caprock, variations in hydraulic conductivity, caused by stratigraphy or discontinuities of the stratigraphic units, are a major control on the direction of groundwater flow and the distribution of water levels and salinity. Results of cross-sectional modeling confirm the general groundwater flow pattern that would be expected in a layered coastal system. Groundwater flow is: (a) predominantly upward in the low-permeability sedimentary units; and (b) predominantly horizontal in the high-permeability sedimentary units. Received, October 1996 Revised, August 1997 Accepted, September 1997     

The relative effects of deformation and thermal advection on fluid pathways in basin-related mineralization

The migration of basinal brines into basement material has been proposed as a means of scouring or leaching metals for subsequent ore deposition. Here we address this issue by numerically examining competing processes, namely deformation, fluid flow and thermal gradients, to describe potential fluid pathways leading to enrichment of metals and ore deposition. Stable convective fluid patterns may be established across the cover/basement interfaces if permeability contrasts are minimized, however, at the onset of extensional deformation these convective patterns quickly collapse. On cessation of the deformation, convection cells again develop, which are oscillatory with time. Input to the thermal budget from a radiogenic heat source suggests that basinal fluids can be drawn down around the margins of granite intrusions and fluid mixing processes may take place due to small and localised convective patterns. Fluid migration from basin into basement and back is highly likely given the right conditions, however, the rate and extent of fluid flow are determined by thermal and deformation processes.     

Numerical investigation of salinity in controlling ore-forming fluid transport in sedimentary basins: example of the HYC deposit, Northern Australia

This paper presents the first hydrogeological model that fully couples transient fluid flow, heat and solute transport associated with the formation of the HYC SEDEX deposit in the McArthur Basin, northern Australia. Numerical results reveal that salinity plays an important role in controlling hydrothermal fluid migration. In particular, it appears that it is the distribution of evaporitic units within a given basin, rather than their absolute abundance, that controls the development of free convection. Relatively saline conditions at the seafloor strengthen the thermally-induced buoyancy force and hence promote free convection of basinal solutions; whereas high salinities at the bottom counteract the thermal function of natural geothermal gradient and suppress the development of convective hydrothermal fluid circulation. In the latter case, higher thermal gradients are required to initiate substantial free convective fluid flow.Numerical experiments also suggest the position of an ore body with respect to its vent system may be controlled by the spatial and temporal salinity distributions in the basin. Vent-distal ore formation, a result of exhalation of brines that are denser than seawater and hence can flow away from the vent region, is promoted by moderate salinity at the seafloor and higher salinity in the aquifer. Vent-proximal ore accumulation, a result of pluming upon exhalation of brines less dense than seawater, is favored by the highest salinity conditions occurring near the level of the seafloor.Editorial Handling: G. Beaudoin     

利用测井数据解析含煤地层渗透特性

研究受采动影响含煤地层渗透特性的变化规律,结合电视钻孔成像技术综合分析覆岩破坏高度,对煤矿开采瓦斯抽放系统钻孔位置合理布置具有重要意义。根据测井资料（密度、伽马）,解析地层边界、泥质含量及纯岩段夹层、弱层的存在及其对含煤地层渗透特性的影响。理论分析与现场实测表明：原始地层伽马曲线和泥质含量可以解析泥岩、粘土层和夹层、弱层的位置;含煤地层渗透率受采动影响,渗透率增高区由采前泥岩、粘土与其他岩体层交界和原始裂隙区向采后纯岩夹层、弱层区演化;被研究含煤地层冒落带顶点深度433 m,裂隙带顶点深度382 m。     

Influence of fluid flow on the regional thermal field: results from 3D numerical modelling for the area of Brandenburg (North German Basin)

We analyse the effect of fluid flow on the recent thermal field for the Brandenburg region (North German Basin) which is strongly affected by salt structures. The basin fill is modified by a thick layer of mobilized salt (Zechstein, Upper Permian) that decouples the overburden from deeper parts of the lithosphere and is responsible for thermal anomalies since salt has a distinctly higher thermal conductivity than the surrounding sediments and is impermeable to fluid flow. Numerical simulations of coupled fluid flow and heat transfer are carried out to investigate the influence of fluid flow on the shallow temperature field above the Zechstein salt, based on the finite element method. A comparison of results from conductive and coupled modelling reveals that the temperature field down to the low-permeable Triassic Muschelkalk is influenced by fluids, where the shallow low-permeable Tertiary Rupelian-clay is absent. Overall cooling is induced by forced convective forces, the depth range of which is controlled by the communication pathways between the different aquifers. Moreover, buoyancy-induced effects are found in response to temperature-dependent differences in the fluid density where forced convective forces are weak. The range of influence is controlled by the thickness and the permeability of the permeable strata above the Triassic Muschelkalk. With increasing depth, thermal conduction mainly controls the short-wavelength pattern of the temperature distribution, whereas the long-wavelength pattern results from interaction between the highly conductive crust and low-conductive sediments. Our results provide generic implications for basins affected by salt tectonics.     

苏北盆地层状盐穴储气库CO2封存数值模拟研究

地下盐岩溶腔是CO₂封存的有效地质体,CO₂沿盐岩软弱夹层和盐层-夹层交界面泄漏是制约地下盐岩溶腔CO₂安全封存的关键。以苏北盆地金坛地区CO₂盐穴储气库为研究对象,建立了层状盐穴储气库CO₂封存的流-固耦合数学模型,分析了盐岩及泥岩夹层中CO₂运移泄漏规律及其对CO₂安全封存的影响,并探讨了盐岩及泥岩夹层渗透率的动态响应特征。结果表明：渗透率是决定盐岩层中CO₂运移速率和泄漏范围的关键,在其影响下,相同封存时间内泥岩夹层中CO₂运移速率和影响范围远大于盐岩,但随封存时间延长,盐岩和泥岩夹层中CO₂运移速率和压力增幅均呈降低趋势,并随着CO₂压力传播至模拟边界而趋于稳定。渗透率动态变化是上覆地层压力负效应与盐岩层中CO₂压力正效应共同作用的结果,并受盐岩和泥岩夹层力学性质的影响。CO₂封存时间<3 ...     

层状盐岩双井流场浓度场试验及数值计算

为了研究层状盐岩小间距双井水溶造腔中流场浓度场特征,进行了相关的模型试验和数值计算。基于量纲分析法搭建了模拟建腔期腔内流场的相似模型试验平台,利用染色法研究了建腔期腔内流场运移规律,并采用时均法测量腔内浓度。试验发现：流量越大,浮羽流极限高度越高,但腔内浓度变化速率减小,排卤口浓度变低;提管高度的改变实际上是改变了淡水相对于腔体的初始空间位置;夹层赋存状态变化实际是改变夹层在溶腔中的空间位置,处于不同区域的夹层会改变腔体流场的运动趋势和作用范围。利用Fluent软件进行3D数值计算,结果验证了室内试验流场的普遍规律,得出同样的分层结果;但在速度分布上,发现流场底部并非无宏观流动,而是自然对流扩散和沉降作用占主导。     

块石路基对流特性实验研究

利用块石层调控冻土路基地温是冻土工程主动冷却路基的一种重要措施,并在青藏铁路重大工程建设中得到广泛应用.通过块石层中空气流动特性的深入研究,对其结构优化和效能提升具有重要意义,而不同温差条件下块石层中空气的流动特性,以及微风速的实际测定一直是其中亟待解决的问题.通过高精度微风速探测,首次获得封闭条件下块石层的空气流动特征.结果表明:在边界温度波动条件下,块石层内的降温过程与其内部自然对流过程密切相关,在对流作用下快速完成降温过程;升温过程则在相对较长时段内主要由内部的热传导换热完成,由此导致温度变化曲线非对称这一特殊现象的出现,并随深度增加而愈加明显.块石层上下端面的温差是对流发生及强度的关键控制因素,当温差达到一定量值时流速随温差的增加而加大,同时空气温度的变化也会对空气流动过程产生影响;块石层内整个空气流动过程是一个传递过程,也是热量传递的过程.该实验研究结果将对该种工程措施机理的进一步认识和改进、相关模拟计算参数的选取,以及在冻土区高等级公路等重大工程建设中的进一步有效应用均具有重要意义.     

The effect of typical geological heterogeneities on the performance of managed aquifer recharge: physical experiments and numerical simulations

Understanding the role of geological heterogeneity on the performance of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) in terms of effective groundwater storage is crucial to design MAR systems. Natural aquifers are affected by a variety of geologic strata and structures at different scales, which are responsible for wide ranging hydraulic properties. This study combines physical experiments and numerical modeling to investigate the effect of geologic structures commonly encountered in sedimentary environments, on MAR-induced groundwater flow patterns using injection wells. Models were conceptualized and parametrized based on the hydrogeological conditions of Tailan River basin in arid NW China, which hosts a typical, structurally complex, alluvial-fan aquifer system affected by sediment layering, clay lenses and anticline barriers, and is extensively studied for the strategic potential of MAR in addressing water shortages in the region. Results showed that, compared to a homogeneous scenario, high-permeability aquifer layers shortened groundwater ages, decreased the thickness of the artificially recharged water lenses (ARWLs), and shifted the stagnation points downstream. Clay lenses increased groundwater residence times but had little effect on spatial flow patterns due to their elongation parallel-to-flow direction. Overall groundwater ages, as well as the thickness of ARWLs created through injection on the upstream side of an anticline, increased, and this to a larger extent than through injection on the downstream side, which did not increase significantly compared to the homogeneous scenario. Results provide insights for MAR optimization in naturally heterogeneous aquifer systems, along with a benchmark tool for application to a wide range of typical geological conditions.

     

Hydraulic interactions between fractures and bedding planes in a carbonate aquifer studied by means of experimentally induced water-table fluctuations (Coaraze experimental site, southeastern France)

In aquifers with variable permeabilities, the water exchanges between high- and low-permeability regions are controlled by the hydraulic head gradient. Past studies have addressed this problem mainly considering steady-state hydraulic conditions. To study such exchanges during water-table fluctuations, a spring in southeastern France was equipped with a water-gate that creates 10-m artificial fluctuations of the water table. The water exchanges are discussed with respect to hydrochemical and pressure measurements in the groundwater. With successive water-table fluctuations the mineralization and pH decrease, but the bicarbonate content increases in response to carbon dioxide dissolution. At this scale of single fractures and surroundings, the hydrochemistry allows water flows from low- or high-permeability discontinuities to be discriminated. During hydraulic head fluctuations, the waters from low- and high-permeability discontinuities become mixed. During water-table rise, the low-permeability matrix contributed to the refilling of the permeable faults and to the mixing of the waters. Dynamic flows in the opposite direction to the hydraulic gradient can expel mineralized water, pushing it towards permeable discontinuities. This mechanism could be the cause of the peak in the mineralization recorded in some karst springs at the start of flood events.     

Permeable convection above magma bodies

Thermal convection above large shallow magma bodies in the crust is treated as a one-dimensional bottom-heated convection process in permeable media. Solutions for single-phase convection are briefly reviewed and a solution is developed for two-phase permeable convection in bottom-heated media. Heat flow measurement techniques are discussed for permeable geologic zones above magma bodies and these techniques give consistent results for solidifying lava lakes in Hawaii (Kilauea Iki, q=257 W/m²) and Iceland (Heimaey, q = 465 W/m²).The heat loss from a magma body is a strong function of the permeability when a two-phase convection zone occurs above the magma body, and the heat loss is independent of the thickness of the two-phase convection zone. In steady-state two-phase convection zones, where permeability does not vary appreciably with depth, convective heat flow restrictions tend to limit the maximum saturation temperatures at depth to around 250°C—an effect observed in many geothermal steam fields. A conduction-dominated transition zone tends to occur between the two-phase zone and the magma body and the thickness of this transition zone may easily range from a few meters to several kilometers, depending on the permeability.     

库车前陆盆地克拉2气田白垩纪基准面旋回与储层物性的关系

沉积基准面旋回对陆相盆地砂岩储层的物性特征具有重要的控制作用.本文以高分辨率层序地层学理论为指导,通过对露头、测井、岩心资料的分析,在库车前陆盆地克拉2气田白垩系中识别出3种不同级别的基准面旋回,分别是中期旋回、短期旋回及超短期旋回,并探讨了砂岩储层物性分布与不同级别基准面旋回的关系.研究发现,对于同种成因类型的砂体,随着基准面的上升,其孔隙度、渗透率有下降趋势.在基准面较低的情况下,易形成高孔、高渗的储层.在下降半旋回与上升半旋回的转换点附近,一般为一组或一段地层中最大的孔隙度和渗透率发育的层位.     

Detection of free vertical convection and double-diffusion in groundwater monitoring wells with geophysical borehole measurements

Two algorithms for in-situ detection and identification of vertical free convective and double-diffusive flows in groundwater monitoring wells or boreholes are proposed. With one algorithm the causes (driving forces) and with the other one the effects (convection or double-diffusion) of vertical transport processes can be detected based on geophysical borehole measurements in the water column. Five density-driven flow processes are identified: thermal, solutal, and thermosolutal convection leading to an equalization, as well as saltfingers and diffusive layering leading to an intensification of a vertical density gradient. The occurrence of density-driven transport processes could be proven in many groundwater monitoring wells and boreholes; especially shallow sections of boreholes or groundwater monitoring wells are affected dramatically by such vertical flows. Deep sections are also impaired as the critical threshold for the onset of a density-driven flow is considerably low. In monitoring wells or boreholes, several sections with different types of density-driven vertical flows may exist at the same time. Results from experimental investigations in a medium-scale testing facility with high aspect ratio (height/radius = 19) and from numerical modeling of a water column agree well with paramters of in-situ detected convection cells.     

地壳动力学在石油开发中的应用(五)——构造应力场与石油开采

油田应力场有空间上的复杂性和时间上的多变性,对石油生、运、储、勘、采的作用各有时空上的特点。油田应力场在高渗油田、低渗油田和稠油油田的开采中都有重要作用,是石油开采必备的基础性资料和重要依据。     

降雨条件下顺倾向煤系地层边坡稳定性的影响研究

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