古地震学:活动断裂强震复发规律的研究

古地震学是活动构造学、地震地质学和构造地貌学相结合的一个分支学科,它以野外工作为基础,以史前地震的发生位置、时间及震级为研究目标,其核心是古地震事件变形的地层和地貌证据.古地震学通过运用沉积地层学、地貌学和构造地质学等研究中常用的方法和手段来识别第四纪沉积中保存的史前强震的证据并对其进行准确年代测定,弥补了历史地震和仪...     

地震超剪切破裂研究现状

地震断层的破裂速度是地球物理学和地震学研究中重要的一个参数,以往的相关研究多是基于或者关注于断层破裂速度小于或接近于剪切波速时的情况,但是随着宽频带地震学的发展,在实际地震中已经观测到了一些超剪切波破裂速度的地震.为了解地震超剪切破裂相关研究的现状和发展趋势,基于大量相关研究文献,从地震超剪切破裂的概念、断层的极限破裂...     

2010年玉树7.1级地震诱发滑坡特征及其地震地质意义

2010年玉树7.1级地震造成了一系列次生地质灾害。笔者在玉树灾区地震地质灾害调查基础上,结合Quickbird高分辨率遥感影像数据和航片影像数据,以目视解译为主,共提取了542处地震滑坡,并首次发现了11处古地震滑坡。调查研究结果显示,玉树地震滑坡主要包括崩塌、狭义的滑坡和土溜等三种类型。其中地震崩塌占到了90%以上,按其物质成分可进一步划分为碎屑型崩塌、碎屑流型崩塌和岩崩等三类。地震滑坡的空间展布特征显示,该区80%以上的地震滑坡集中分布在以玉树活动断层为轴的长约95km、两侧宽2km的廊带区内,并与发震断层距离和宏观震中有很好的相关性,其高密度区与同震地表破裂的空间分段性也有很好的对应关系,体现出典型的走滑型发震断层的控灾特点。同时,还进一步分析了山体坡度、坡体形态、临空面高度和地层岩石与岩体完整度等因素对地震滑坡总体分布的影响。对古地震滑坡的初步研究发现,古地震滑坡的规模、期次和分布特征间接地反映出玉树断裂带在全新世期间曾发生过多次震级强度明显大于本次玉树7.1级地震的古地震事件,这为更深入探索玉树断裂带古地震事件提供了另一种重要的研究途径。此外,地震滑坡分布与地表破裂和极震区破坏程度之间的密切空间关系指示,地震滑坡也可以成为快速圈定宏观震中以及开展极震区地震烈度评价等方面的重要指标。     

由古地震推断海地Enriquillo-Plantain Garden断层的地震危险性

海地的Enriquillo-Plantain Garden断裂带被认为是主要板块边界断层系之一。走滑性质的Enriquillo-Plantain Garden断层带紧邻太子港市而过,起初被认为是2010年1月12日M_w7.0级地震的发震断层。海地经历了1751年和1770年的大地震,但人们对Enriquillo-Plantain Garden断层带在这些地震中起的作用知之甚少。我们利用卫星影像、航空照片、激光雷达和野外调查这些方式证实了Enriquillo-Plantain Garden断层的第四纪活动性。我们指出断层晚第四纪左旋位移量达160m,并发现了一组可能与18世纪的一次地震有关的小位移,其位移量从1.3m到3.3m不等。小位移的幅度显示18世纪的那次历史地震大于M_w7.0,但是很可能小于M_w7.6。我们没有发现与2010年大地震有关的明显的地表破裂。没有地表破裂,加上其他的地震学、地质学、大地测量学方面的观察结果,表明2010年大地震时Enriquillo-Plantain Garden断层即使有,也只是很少的累积应变得到释放。这些结论证实,Enriquillo-Plantain Garden...     

武汉阳逻王母山断层及地震楔构造研究

本文研究了武汉阳逻王母山一带新发现的NWW走向的张性断层和该区集中分布的古地震楔构造。通过对王母山一带第四系剖面的详细测量,识别出阳逻砾石层(Q1y)底部的"标志性砾石层"具有结构成熟度低、风化程度高、短距离内厚度稳定和具有弱网纹化的鲜明特征,其夹持于下伏第三系东湖群(E)红色砂岩和上覆阳逻砾石层(Q1y)之间,层位稳定。经槽探揭露和剖面测量,以"标志层"对比为依据,对王母山断层的特征和性质进行了研究,指出王母山断层是由主干正断层(f1)及其上盘派生两个次级正断层(f2、f3)构成的的张性正断层,主干正断层(f1)走向308°,倾向NE,倾角40°~52°,断距6~8m,同步断错第三系东湖群(E)红色砂岩、下更新统阳逻砾石层(Q1y)和中更新统王家店组泥砾层(Q2w)。阳逻王母山一带集中分布的古地震楔构造平面可追踪长度3~20m不等,普遍错断阳逻砾石层(Q1y),向下收敛并尖灭于阳逻砾石层底部,仅发现2处古地震楔尖灭于东湖群(E)红色砂岩顶部并呈风化成白色粘土的节理裂隙。地质分析认为,王母山断层及其近区集中分布的古地震楔构造是在同一构造应力场中发育的,通过对古地震楔和王母山主干断层f1的应力分析发现,该区主压应力方向为NW335°左右,而主张应力方向为NE65°左右,在此背景下形成的古地震楔的走向主要为NW328°和170°~190°方向,而主干断裂走向则为300°左右。研究认为王母山断层错断下更新统阳逻砾石层及其上覆的中更新统王家店组(Q2w)泥砾层,时限为中更新世以新,为第四纪活动断层。武汉地区周边为一系列大断裂所环绕,尤其是NW向的襄(樊)-广(济)断裂从阳逻一带穿过,襄广断裂一线历史上曾遭遇过数十次地震的袭击,为湖北省历史中强震活动区之一。而阳逻龙口王母山断层及区内广泛分布的古地震楔构造则可能是同期古地震的反映。阳逻王母山断层及古地震楔研究为武汉地区地震地质构造的研究提供了新的依据。     

北美西部盆地山脉省历史地表破裂作用一断层分段的意义

前言 单次历史地震很难使整个断层带发生破裂．因此，地震灾害分析要求估计特定断层带在未来地震时的破裂规模，以说明地震的大小现已研究出了数个估计未来地震破裂长度的方法，包括半长度，部分断层长度和断层分段等方法．其中断层分段方法最为诱人，     

大兴安岭北段雅鲁河断裂晚更新世活动记录

大兴安岭北段雅鲁河断裂为典型的活动断层,对区域晚更新世地质和地貌演化及现代地震具有控制意义。在扎兰屯市成吉思汗镇北雅鲁河东侧发现雅鲁河断裂活动记录,以野外资料为基础,通过相关松散堆积物的光释光测年,厘定断层活动特征和活动时限,并结合相关经验公式,估测该记录反映的古地震特征。研究结果显示,雅鲁河断裂晚更新世在扎兰屯南部地区存在断层活动,断层走向近SN向、倾向265°、倾角约55°,性质为逆断层;断层活动错断了中生代流纹岩和晚更新世早-中期洪冲积物,并被晚更新世晚期残积和冲积物覆盖,断层活动发生在距今53.4±6.7~39.1±3.6ka之间;活动记录所反映的古地震矩震级(M0)和面波震级(Ms)为6.7级,地震发生时地表破裂长度(SRL)约为30.2~37.8km。     

活动断裂带岩石的变形机制和摩擦性质—以圣·安德列斯断层为例

岩石的变形机制和力学性质对认识活动断裂带的孕震机制和发震过程都具有重要意义。圣·安德列斯（San Andreas）转换断层是太平洋板块与北美板块的构造边界,也是重要的地震活动带,总结了美国南加州地震中心对圣·安德列斯断层钻孔断层岩的研究进展。对断层泥的高速摩擦实验发现：动力弱化现象只在高速滑移时才发生,伴随着摩擦生热,岩石的摩擦系数显著降低。断层泥中富镁黏土矿物的富集可以显著降低断层的摩擦系数,促进蠕滑,黏土矿物的不均一分布可导致断裂带变形行为和地震分布的突变。与断层泥和碎裂岩不同,粉碎岩形成于快速传播地震的断裂端部,具高孔隙率和高渗透率,流体活动性强。此外,断层岩的有机质成熟度可用来追溯古地震造成的热异常。在川滇中国地震科学实验场开展科学钻探项目,研究断层岩样品的显微结构、物理性质和变形历史,以期为理解大陆汇聚与转换挤压过程中复杂的地震活动提供重要信息。     

皖东五河—凤阳地区钱台子金矿床黄铁矿标型特征及S-Pb同位素组成

岩石的变形机制和力学性质对认识活动断裂带的孕震机制和发震过程都具有重要意义。圣·安德列斯（San Andreas）转换断层是太平洋板块与北美板块的构造边界,也是重要的地震活动带,总结了美国南加州地震中心对圣·安德列斯断层钻孔断层岩的研究进展。对断层泥的高速摩擦实验发现：动力弱化现象只在高速滑移时才发生,伴随着摩擦生热,岩石的摩擦系数显著降低。断层泥中富镁黏土矿物的富集可以显著降低断层的摩擦系数,促进蠕滑,黏土矿物的不均一分布可导致断裂带变形行为和地震分布的突变。与断层泥和碎裂岩不同,粉碎岩形成于快速传播地震的断裂端部,具高孔隙率和高渗透率,流体活动性强。此外,断层岩的有机质成熟度可用来追溯古地震造成的热异常。在川滇中国地震科学实验场开展科学钻探项目,研究断层岩样品的显微结构、物理性质和变形历史,以期为理解大陆汇聚与转换挤压过程中复杂的地震活动提供重要信息。     

1988年耿马地震断层几何结构,位移及力学性质

地震断层几何结构及位移分布特征,是地震断层研究的重要内容,对认识发震断层的破裂方式和过程、震源破坏机制和现代地壳应力及地壳运动状况具有实际意义。耿马7.2级地震(微观震中:Nф23°23′;Eλ99°36′;震源深度8km)形成的地震断层规模大,线性特征清晰醒目,长约18km,为地震断层研究提供了宝贵信息。笔者对该断层各段共实测并绘制平面形态图近2000m,发现该地震断层由NW向主地震断层和多组不同方     

Liquefaction evidence for strong earthquakes of Holocene and latest Pleistocene ages in the states of Indiana and Illinois, USA

Sand- and gravel-filled clastic dikes of seismic liquefaction origin occur throughout much of southern Indiana and Illinois. Nearly all of these dikes originated from prehistoric earthquakes centered in the study area. In this area at least seven and probably eight strong prehistoric earthquakes have been documented as occurring during the Holocene, and at least one during the latest Pleistocene. The recognition of different earthquakes has been based mainly on timing of liquefaction in combination with the regional pattern of liquefaction effects, but some have been recognized only by geotechnical testing at sites of liquefaction.

Most paleo-earthquakes presently recognized lie in Indiana, but equally as many may have occurred in Illinois. Studies in Illinois have not yet narrowly bracketed the age of clastic dikes at many sites, which sometimes causes uncertainty in defining the causative earthquake, but even in Illinois the largest paleo-earthquakes probably have been identified.

Prehistoric magnitudes were probably as high as about moment magnitude M 7.5. This greatly exceeds the largest historic earthquake of M 5.5 centered in Indiana or Illinois. The strongest paleo-earthquakes struck in the vicinity of the concentration of strongest historic seismicity. Elsewhere, paleo-earthquakes on the order of M 6–7 have occurred even where there has been little or no historic seismicity.

Both geologic and geotechnical methods of analysis have been essential for verification of seismic origin for the dikes and for back-calculating prehistoric magnitudes. Methods developed largely as part of this study should be of great value in unraveling the paleoseismic record elsewhere.     

Seismically mobilized moraines in the Tien Shan

Moraines studied in the Chon-Kyzylsuu River valley (southeastern Lake Issyk-Kul region, Tien Shan) were mobilized during historic and prehistoric large earthquakes. Seismic triggers of moraine mobilization included the M > 8 Kebin earthquake of 1911 and prehistoric events that produced rockslides, landslides, and multiple fault scarps. Rockslides in the Chon-Kyzylsuu basin are located in the hanging wall of the Terskey border thrust fault. The observed deformation results from at least four prehistoric earthquakes in the second half of the Holocene (early 20th century BC, early 11th century BC, middle 8th century BC, and early 2nd century BC), with local shaking intensity I > 7.     

The record of historic earthquakes in lake sediments of Central Switzerland

Deformation structures in lake sediments in Central Switzerland can be attributed to strong historic earthquakes. The type and spatial distribution of the deformation structures reflect the historically documented macroseismic intensities thus providing a useful calibration tool for paleoseismic investigations in prehistoric lake sediments.The Swiss historical earthquake catalogue shows four moderate to strong earthquakes with moment magnitudes of M_w=5.7 to M_w=6.9 and epicentral intensities of I₀=VII to I₀=IX that affected the area of Central Switzerland during the last 1000 years. These are the 1964 Alpnach, 1774 Altdorf, 1601 Unterwalden, and 1356 Basel earthquakes. In order to understand the effect of these earthquakes on lacustrine sediments, four lakes in Central Switzerland (Sarner See, Lungerer See, Baldegger See, and Seelisberg Seeli) were investigated using high-resolution seismic data and sediment cores. The sediments consist of organic- and carbonate-rich clayey to sandy silts that display fine bedding on the centimeter to millimeter scale. The sediments are dated by historic climate and environmental records, ¹³⁷Cs activity, and radiocarbon ages. Deformation structures occur within distinct zones and include large-scale slumps and rockfalls, as well as small-scale features like disturbed and contorted lamination and liquefaction structures. These deformations are attributed to three of the abovementioned earthquakes. The spatial distribution of deformation structures in the different lakes clearly reflects the historical macroseismic dataset: Lake sediments are only affected if they are situated within an area that underwent groundshaking not smaller than intensity VI to VII. We estimate earthquake size by relating the epicentral distance of the farthest liquefaction structure to earthquake magnitude. This relationship is in agreement with earthquake size estimations based on the historical dataset.     

藏南安岗地堑的史前大地震遗迹、年龄及其地质意义

地表调查发现, 沿近南北向亚东-谷露裂谷中段的安岗地堑存在地震大滑坡、多世代断层崖和断层崩积楔等多种类型的史前大地震遗迹.进一步的观测和年代分析表明: 该区的古地震滑坡体至少存在新、老两期, 其中规模最大的"尼续大滑坡体"应该是最新一次大地震所形成.该区T₁到T₆各阶地的形成时代从新到老分别为7.7~2.1 ka、11.0~10.5 ka、17.6~12.1 ka、25.7~22.9 ka、58.4~70.6 ka和130~150 ka, 它们沿主边界正断层的平均垂直断距依次为2.8 m、6.1~7.9 m、10.3~12.5 m、16.6~19.0 m、28.0 m和76.0 m.其中T₁和T₂阶地上的断崖剖面揭示, 最近两次大地震发生在距今约5.8±1.0 ka和2.4±0.2 ka.综合分析认为: 安岗地堑的大地震活动具有较明显的丛集性特征, 并且在距今约23~26 ka以来一直处于大地震活跃期, 期间的断层垂直活动速率为0.8~1.3 mm/a, 大地震的原地复发间隔大致为3.3~3.6 ka, 特征地震的矩震级为7.0~7.2, 推算整个尼木地堑群的大震复发间隔最短可能只有约1.0~1.2 ka.研究结果指示, 藏南裂谷的大地震活动性明显比藏北的近南北向正断层更显著.      

Earthquake-induced burial of archaeological sites along the southern Washington coast about A.D. 1700

Although inhabited by thousands of people when first reached by Europeans, the Pacific coast of southern Washington has little recognized evidence of prehistoric human occupation. This apparent contradiction may be explained partly by geologic evidence for coastal submergence during prehistoric earthquakes on the Cascadia subduction zone. Recently discovered archaeological sites, exposed in the banks of two tidal streams, show evidence for earthquake-induced submergence and consequent burial by intertidal mud about A.D. 1700. We surmise that, because of prehistoric earthquakes, other archaeological sites may now lie hidden beneath the surfaces of modern tidelands. Such burial of archaeological sites raises questions about the estimation of prehistoric human population densities along coasts subject to earthquake-induced submergence. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Transtensional deformation in the Lake Tahoe region, California and Nevada, USA

Dextral transtensional deformation is occurring along the Sierra Nevada–Great Basin boundary zone (SNGBBZ) at the eastern edge of the Sierra Nevada microplate. In the Lake Tahoe region of the SNGBBZ, transtension is partitioned spatially and temporally into domains of north–south striking normal faults and transitional domains with conjugate strike-slip faults. The normal fault domains, which have had large Holocene earthquakes but account only for background seismicity in the historic period, primarily accommodate east–west extension, while the transitional domains, which have had moderate Holocene and historic earthquakes and are currently seismically active, primarily record north–south shortening. Through partitioned slip, the upper crust in this region undergoes overall constrictional strain.Major fault zones within the Lake Tahoe basin include two normal fault zones: the northwest-trending Tahoe–Sierra frontal fault zone (TSFFZ) and the north-trending West Tahoe–Dollar Point fault zone. Most faults in these zones show eastside down displacements. Both of these fault zones show evidence of Holocene earthquakes but are relatively quiet seismically through the historic record. The northeast-trending North Tahoe–Incline Village fault zone is a major normal to sinistral-oblique fault zone. This fault zone shows evidence for large Holocene earthquakes and based on the historic record is seismically active at the microearthquake level. The zone forms the boundary between the Lake Tahoe normal fault domain to the south and the Truckee transition zone to the north.Several lines of evidence, including both geology and historic seismicity, indicate that the seismically active Truckee and Gardnerville transition zones, north and southeast of Lake Tahoe basin, respectively, are undergoing north–south shortening. In addition, the central Carson Range, a major north-trending range block between two large normal fault zones, shows internal fault patterns that suggest the range is undergoing north–south shortening in addition to east–west extension.A model capable of explaining the spatial and temporal partitioning of slip suggests that seismic behavior in the region alternates between two modes, one mode characterized by an east–west minimum principal stress and a north–south maximum principal stress as at present. In this mode, seismicity and small-scale faulting reflecting north–south shortening concentrate in mechanically weak transition zones with primarily strike-slip faulting in relatively small-magnitude events, and domains with major normal faults are relatively quiet. A second mode occurs after sufficient north–south shortening reduces the north–south S_hmax in magnitude until it is less than S_v, at which point S_v becomes the maximum principal stress. This second mode is then characterized by large earthquakes on major normal faults in the large normal fault domains, which dominate the overall moment release in the region, producing significant east–west extension.     

Neotectonics of the upper Mississippi embayment

Although the upper Mississippi embayment is an area of low relief, the region has been subjected to tectonic influence throughout its history and continues to be so today. Tectonic activity can be recognized through seismicity patterns and geological indicators of activity, either those as a direct result of earthquakes, or longer term geomorphic, structural, and sedimentological signatures. The rate of seismic activity in the upper Mississippi embayment is generally lower than at the margins of tectonic plates; the embayment, however, is the most seismically active region east of the Rocky Mountains, with activity concentrated in the New Madrid seismic zone. This zone produced the very large New Madrid earthquakes of 1811 and 1812.

Geological and geophysical evidence of neotectonic activity in the upper Mississippi embayment includes faulting in the Benton Hills and Thebes Gap in Missouri, paleoliquefaction in the Western Lowlands of Missouri, subsurface faulting beneath and tilting of Crowley's Ridge in northeastern Arkansas and southeastern Missouri, subsurface faulting along the Crittenden County fault zone near Memphis, Tennessee, faulting along the east flank of the Tiptonville dome, and numerous indicators of historic and prehistoric large earthquakes in the New Madrid seismic zone.

Paleoearthquake studies in the New Madrid seismic zone have used trenching, seismic reflection, shallow coring, pedology, geomorphology, archaeology, and dendrochronology to identify and date faulting, deposits of liquefied sand, and areas of uplift and subsidence. The cause of today's relatively high rate of tectonic activity in the Mississippi embayment remains elusive. It is also not clear whether this activity rate is a short term phenomenon or has been constant over millions of years. Ongoing geodetic and geological studies should provide more insight as to the precise manner in which crustal strain is accumulating, and perhaps allow improved regional neotectonic models.     

Catastrophic earthquakes in Iceland

A short review on the geographical distribution of earthquakes, and some hints at special features of catastrophic earthquakes in Iceland. It is suggested that large areas of destruction in several historic earthquakes are related to displacements on large fault areas rather than to high acceleration.