Implementation of coastal erosion management in the Netherlands

The Netherlands is a low-lying country, in which 9 million people are living below sea level and 70% of the gross domestic product is being earned in areas below sea level. Therefore, protection against flooding is traditionally the primary focus of coastal policy in the Netherlands. Analysis shows that characteristics of Dutch coastal management very well comply with the recommendations and key concepts to support sustainable coastal management as issued by the EU in 2004 (EUROSION). Sediment management represents the core of erosion management in the Netherlands; key concepts like resilience, coastal sediment cells, favorable sediment status and strategic sediment reservoirs, are important building stones. Development and implementation of coastal erosion management in the Netherlands, has implicitly been guided by a systematic Frame-of-Reference. Characteristics of this approach are the definition of clear objectives at different levels (i.e. strategic, tactical and operational) and an operational decision recipe related to policy development and implementation. Application of the Frame-of-Reference to current problems and challenges in Dutch coastal management indicates its ability to reveal shortcomings of the existing approach, and to explore potential solutions. Where EUROSION offers important concepts to define coastal erosion management, the Frame-of-Reference offers a tool to discern different objectives and responsibilities. The combination of both strongly supports implementation of coastal erosion management.     

A broad-scale assessment of the risk to coastal seagrasses from cumulative threats

Informing the management of coastal marine habitats at broad spatial scales is difficult because of the costs associated with collecting and analyzing ecological data at that scale. Spatially explicit assessments of the risk to coastal marine habitats from cumulative threats provide an alternative approach by identifying sites that are exposed to multiple anthropogenic threats at broad scales. In this study, qualitative measures of vulnerability were combined with geospatial data to evaluate the risk to coastal seagrasses at the scale of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) region (∼26,000 km²) of Queensland, Australia. The risk assessment outputs identified agricultural, urban and industrial runoff, and urban and port developments as the major anthropogenic activities threatening coastal seagrasses. ‘Hot spots’ with multiple threat exposure were all in industrial port locations and the southern two-thirds of the GBR. There is a distinct discontinuity in threat exposure along the GBR coast with 98% of seagrass meadows in the northern third exposed to only low levels of anthropogenic risk. The clustering of threat exposure is discussed in terms of coastal management policy. The approach outlined in this study provides management agencies a method of achieving maximum return for minimal investment in data collection at broad spatial scales by identifying sites where management intervention would be best targeted.     

Co-existence of seals and fisheries? Adaptation of a coastal fishery for recovery of the Baltic grey seal

A complex controversy emerged when the grey seal population in the Baltic Sea recovered after decades of stagnation. The seals now cause substantial economic losses to coastal fisheries. The paper analyses the attempts taken in Finland to mitigate the problems of fishermen. The mitigation attempts include the hunting of seals, fishing technology development, economic compensations and more comprehensive management approaches. These measures are discussed in light of the long-term sustainability and adaptability of a coastal fishery. This question is important with respect to further discussions on the possibility of the coastal fishery’s co-existence with seals and sheds light on more general goals for the adaptability in the management of social–ecological systems. The paper concludes that the more comprehensive measures taken have acknowledged the need to enhance the fishery’s adaptability, but the managerial approach they represent falls short of the requirements for successful adaptive management, especially in terms of embedding the management into specific coastal contexts.     

ICZM and coastal defence perception by beach users: Lessons from the Mediterranean coastal area

Member States of the European Union and the Mediterranean Regional Sea need to elaborate national strategies for coastal management according to ICZM principles and to undertake national stock-taking, which must consider major actors, laws and institutions influencing the management of their national coastal zone. However, different approaches to coastal management and defence and various degrees of development and implementation of national ICZM strategies can be found. The research presented in this article aims to analyze the different situations and to contribute to the further development of a common approach in terms of methodology to establish stakeholder and users participation in ICZM. An extensive survey was conducted in five pilot sites along the European Mediterranean coastal zone (Greece, Italy and France) show beach visitors’ perception of ICZM, coastal erosion and coastal defence systems, and beach visitors’ Willingness To Pay (WTP) for beach defence. The survey yielded important information for coastal and beach managers. Surprisingly, the level of awareness about generic Coastal Zone Management was found to be rather low in all regions except Riccione Southern beach, Emilia-Romagna Region. In the Languedoc-Roussillon Region, this is justified by the fact that most of the respondents were not local people or beach visitors (other than recreational day-visitors). As regards coastal erosion it appears significant that, despite the lack of awareness demonstrated overall by stakeholders in the Region of East Macedonia and Thrace, visitors respond very positively to definitions and show awareness of the erosion process in their coastal system. In conclusion, in order to raise public awareness about ICZM, erosion and coastal defence systems, it is suggested that education, training and public awareness should be promoted as well as identification of local needs for the implementation of specific demand-driven studies.     

Building capacity for integrated coastal management in developing countries

The need for building human and institutional capacity has been identified in Agenda 21 of the UNCED conference as well as by a number of international environmental institutions as essential for integrated coastal management (ICM) and sustainable development in developing coastal states. There is a growing need for coastal management practitioners and organizations with expertise in planning and implementation for ICM. The application of strategies for institutional development and building human capacity in coastal management and other fields shows that short-term intensive training efforts and long-term institutional strengthening programs are appropriate to address the issues and needs of ICM. An overview of the experience of the URI/USAID International Coastal Resources Management Program in Sri Lanka, Thailand and Ecuador presents lessons learned for strengthening ICM efforts in developing countries.     

The Pacific International Waters Project: Aims,approaches and challenges

This paper focuses on pilot activities being carried out under the Integrated Coastal Watershed Management component of the Pacific International Waters Project (IWP). The paper discusses a two-pronged approach being taken to address the root causes of identified threats to the international waters of 14 Pacific Island countries. National and local level activities are focusing on coastal fisheries, waste management and freshwater protection. The integrated strategic approach of participatory planning processes, social analysis, resource economics and communications in identification of environment problems, their causes and potential solutions for supporting behavioural change in relation to resource use and management is discussed. Some examples of country activities to date are provided. Although it is too early to assess a full range of lessons and project impacts, a number of key issues continue to provide challenges for the implementation of a large regional programme such as the IWP. They include: multi-sectoral stakeholder engagement; the establishment of partnerships needed to support integrated coastal management; and national capacity to implement community-based resource management projects.     

Testing the application of the Systems Approach Framework (SAF) for the management of eutrophication in the Ria Formosa

The SAF (Systems Approach Framework) encompasses the ecological, social and economic components of coastal zones and aims to establish a permanent dialogue between scientists, stakeholders and policy makers working within European coastal zones for developing effective ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management). The objective of the present study is to test the application of the SAF for defining eutrophication management options in the Ria Formosa, Portugal. Stakeholders were identified and the issue of eutrophication was agreed upon. Having defined the virtual system, the conceptual model of the Ria Formosa was developed. The formulation of the conceptual model into a mathematical model representing the ecological, social and economic components of the system is then discussed. The linking variable of the three components within the simulation model, as well as the scenarios to be run are then explored. The role of scientists as facilitators within the deliberation process is discussed, and a format by which the final output package could be disseminated is suggested. This case study demonstrates how the SAF could successfully be applied to the management of eutrophication in the Ria Formosa. It also suggests ways in which this approach may be adapted to address unique coastal systems with specific system characteristics.     

Heritage management plans and integrated coastal management

This paper examines at the origins of coastal zone management and planning in England and from that, how integrated coastal zone management techniques were developed. The lack of heritage management planning in coastal plans in England is discussed and put into context of ‘integrated heritage zone management’ approaches. Having looked at these two systems, examples of good practice are discussed. The concept of spatial planning is also discussed and the opportunities that this might offer for integrating coastal and heritage planning in the Solent are considered.     

The use of ocean color remote sensing in integrated coastal zone management—A case study from Himmerfjärden,Sweden

In this study the use of ocean color data as a diagnostic tool in integrated coastal zone management was investigated as part of the Science Policy Integration for Coastal Systems Assessment (SPICOSA) project. Parallel to this, an operational coastal monitoring system has been set up in close collaboration with end-users. The core work of the bio-optical part in the project was to develop Secchi depth and attenuation of light as indicators for coastal zone management, by linking remote sensing with the socio-economic and ecological model developed in SPICOSA. The article emphasizes the benefits of stakeholder involvement and end-user feedback for efficient and improved system development. Furthermore, conceptual models were developed on how to integrate remote sensing data into coastal zone management and into a physical-biological model of the Baltic Sea. One of the work packages in the SPICOSA project was academic training. In this work package, on-line teaching material in the field of remote sensing and bio-optics was developed and disseminated on the SETnet web page. The article presented here may act as supportive material for training in bio-optics and remote sensing.     

The evolution of coastal management in South Africa: Why blood is thicker than water

This is the first of two articles exploring coastal management in South Africa. Decades of coastal management effort culminated in a Cabinet-approved coastal policy in December 1999. Based on a Government–civil society partnership, the policy aims to promote sustainable coastal development through integrated coastal management. It represents a marked shift from an earlier approach that virtually ignored justice, democracy and poverty. In recent years, attention has focused on empowering poor coastal communities to build sustainable livelihoods. This paper traces the evolution of coastal management in South Africa, and reflects on the challenges of fostering coastal sustainability. The following article explores the sustainable coastal livelihoods approach in more detail.     

Donor evaluations of ICM initiatives: what can be learned from them?

The experience of 19 donor agencies and international organizations with evaluation of ICM initiatives is surveyed to analyze the differences in the evaluative purposes and methodologies and their relevance to a “learning-based approach” to ICM. We group evaluation into three broad categories: performance evaluation, management capacity assessment and outcomes evaluation. Performance evaluations address the quality of project implementation, and the degree to which project goals are achieved. Management capacity assessments are conducted to determine the adequacy of management structures and governance processes as these relate to generally accepted international standards and experience. Outcome assessments evaluate the impacts of a coastal management initiative upon coastal resources and the associated human society(s). The survey show that most donor evaluations emphasize performance evaluation, but usually combine elements of all three types. There is strong interest among international donors investing in coastal management in learning from and advancing coastal management practice. If donors are to maximize leaning and commit to an adaptive approach to ICM they will need to modify the manner in which project monitoring and evaluations are conducted, analyzed and distributed. A number of modifications to current approaches to evaluation are suggested in the paper.     

Experiences of coastal management in the Pacific Islands

Integrated coastal management (ICM) is accepted world-wide as a comprehensive, multi-sectoral integrated approach to the planning and management of coastal areas. ICM is particularly suited to the island member countries of the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) because of their size, the interconnectedness of the coast and terrestrial areas and the high degree of association and community involvement with the management of coastal systems. With the exception of the highly migratory pelagic fish stocks, the narrow natural resource base of many Pacific islands make them particularly vulnerable to inappropriate development and mismanagement. Fortunately, the governments of many Pacific Island countries (PIC) have become aware of the benefits of integrated coastal management and are looking at ways of making it an established practice. This paper uses the framework of ICM to illustrate some of the author's experience of coastal management within the South Pacific region. Within the ICM framework, a range of tools and techniques are available to manage coastal problems. The success of any approach depends on the scale and magnitude of the problems to be addressed and the availability of information, institutional support and commitment from all stakeholders. The way in which programmes are conducted and implemented is particularly important. Top down initiatives may work at the regional level but tend to fail at the national and community level unless there are other incentives to support them. On the other hand, bottom up, process driven initiatives have enjoyed more success at the community level. Demand-based approaches have tended to be very successful at all levels, whether they be at the community, country or regional levels, particularly where all of the interested parties can collaborate and contribute to finding solutions to their problems.     

Coastal and marine resource use conflicts and sustainable development in Tanzania

A survey of coastal and marine resource use conflicts in Tanzania was carried out to highlight them, investigate their origin and finally, suggest ways of minimizing them. Although Tanzania is putting emphasis on environmental issues, including coastal zone management, integrated coastal area management has not yet been integrated into the government management structure/approach. Many conflicts are the result of sectoral approach to coastal and marine resources management, and improper or poor implementation of government policies. Additionally, the local coastal community, who are the foremost stakeholder, were most often not involved in the planning, decision and implementation of many projects and policies even those that affect them directly. Ignorance about the linkages of coastal and marine ecosystems and resources is also an important factor. I suggest that integrated coastal area management which is the foundation for sustainable development, as far as coastal and marine resources are concerned, should be integrated into the government administrative structure. A lead agency with full authority on all activities on the coastal area, including issuance of permits for environmental sensitive businesses/activities, should be nominated or established. This will reduce conflicts by bringing about national coordination of coastal area management.     

Approaches to knowledge sharing and capacity building: The role of local information systems in marine and coastal management

This paper explores how coastal data and information can be mobilised in information systems and applied in coastal management. The concept of an Information System is defined and described, and the potential role of Local Information System (LIS) in integrated coastal management (ICM) is considered. Three examples, from the Severn Estuary, UK the coast of the North West of England and North Wales, and the Fal and Helford estuaries, are used to demonstrate the requirements of a LIS for coastal areas. The role of GIS as part of the solution is considered in detail. The paper demonstrates how ideas from the disciplines of information systems and information science can be practically applied in coastal areas. The findings promote a holistic approach for those involved in the development of technologies and dealing with data and information about coasts and oceans.     

Coastal environment assessment procedure for sustainable wastewater management in tropical islands: the Mayotte example

The recent evolution of the coastal environment is characterized by an increase of human potential impacts: coastal zone is located at the cross-road of sectoral issues which give rise to a number of often competing uses. Today, the main challenges in the coastal environment management are not derived from “technical problems” but correspond to the global coastal management and to the means to harmonize the different uses. This new approach has generated the need to apply systemic concepts which are able to describe and analyze large and complex systems. In the coastal zone — and especially in sensitive environments such as tropical island surrounded by coral reefs, lagoons or boat channels — one of the major challenges is to conciliate the waste waters and pipe outfalls management and the ecological preservation. The paper presents the results which have been obtained with a global approach for the definition of a sustainable wastewater management strategy in highly sensitive coastal areas located in Mayotte, (Comoros archip, Indian Ocean). This example allows to explain and identify the necessary tools and essential procedures as hydrodynamic modelling or public participation. From this application, a procedure for a coastal environment assessment procedure is formulated and proposed.     

The evolution of high-seas fisheries management in the North-east Atlantic

The paper describes the development of high-seas fisheries management in the north-east Atlantic, with reference to the north-east Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) created in 1959. Three distinct phases are identified: the first, characterised by narrow coastal state jurisdiction and the establishment of regional commissions for high-seas fisheries; the second, by the extension of coastal state authority to 200 miles and the reduction in the scope for international management; and the third by the revival of international management following the UN Agreement in 1995. The implications for the past, present and future roles of NEAFC are discussed.     

Shoreline management in a policy vacuum: A local authority perspective

In Ireland there is no national shoreline management policy. Instead, management involves a series of actions at the local authority (County) level that respond to local demands, politics and economics within only a broad legal framework. Through the COREPOINT project, University of Ulster scientists have been working with local authority officials in Donegal to bring a scientific understanding of coastal processes to bear on practical management. Experience at several sites has shown significant changes in practice as a result of this interaction, compared to the previous situation when rock armouring was the favoured response to coastal erosion. We argue that achieving sustainable approaches to coastal management in a policy vacuum relies on a combination of (i) commitment to these approaches by local officials, (ii) low levels of public pressure for action, and (iii) limited financial resources. A change in any one of these is likely to lead to unsustainable actions. While close co-operation with scientists can help management in the absence of a coherent policy, only a formal regulatory instrument can deliver sustainable shoreline management.     

Integrating science and management on coastal marine protected areas in the Southern Gulf of Mexico

The coastal zone of the State of Campeche have some of the Gulf of Mexico’s richest ecosystems characterized by extensive seagrasses, mangrove forests, low-land tidal wetlands, a broad deltaic environment, including the Usumacinta/Laguna de Terminos estuarine ecosystem, and extensive low salinities and brackish wetlands in the Petenes region. Commercial and artisanal fishing, maritime transport, agriculture and cattle grazing in low-land areas, urban expansion, building of highways, and tourism, are important economics activities that are increasing in the State of Campeche. However, the growth needs to occur in a sustainable manner with adequate protection of the coastal ecosystems. The theoretical approach and conceptual basis of the integrated coastal management plan are based on 20 years of scientific research in the region; and from 1990 to the present, a number of projects have been completed which serve as case studies of coastal management coupling science, technology, public participation, and policymaking in the southern Gulf of Mexico. After developing seven “study case” integrating science into policymaking, a management approach was developed considering four main actions: promotion of institutional arrangements, so that the multi-sectorial planning approach be considered in coastal resources development; strengthening of public awareness related to coastal resources management policies and capabilities; gathering, analysis and dissemination of information related to coastal resources development; and provision of technical solutions to coastal resources uses in conflict. Finally this is a case study where science played a significant role in the politics of the policy process, both in protecting key estuarine ecosystem and the planning process defining the ICZM plans.     

Canada's Atlantic Coastal Action Program: A community-based approach to collective governance

The Atlantic Coastal Action Program (ACAP) is a community-based coastal management initiative that has been underway on Canada's east coast for the past 6 years. Coalitions of local stakeholders have been assisted by government in taking a lead role for the planning and management activities in 13 coastal ecosystems throughout Atlantic Canada. The program was initiated and originally facilitated by the federal government (Environment Canada) but has come to be led and owned at the local level. The objective is to have all those affecting and/or affected by local decisions involved in this process. In ACAP, the traditional role of government is shared with the local roundtables that are established in each coastal ecosystem. Instead of government departments being the lead agencies that set policy and priorities, the communities assume this function and the government agencies become partners in responding to their identified needs. ACAP is a practical demonstration of the joint management, or collective governance approach to Integrated Coastal Management and offers lessons to governments and coastal communities looking to establish lasting partnership approaches that have the potential to achieve the sustainable development of coastal ecosystems.