Single-layer folding in marble and limestone: An experimental study

Folding experiments have been carried out on single-layers of Carrara marble and Solnhofen limestone at a confining pressure of 275 bars, temperature of 400°C, and strain rates of 5.5×10⁻⁷ to 8.2×10⁻⁷. The marble and limestone layers were embedded in a rock-salt matrix and in a matrix of a mixture of 60% fine-grained halite and 40% fine-grained calcite, respectively, and deformed to different percentages of bulk shortening. Aspect ratios of the layers varied between 11.25 and 15. The stress-strain relationship reveals that strain increased with a very small increment in compressive stresses, once folding was initiated.With progressive deformation the bulk strain is compensated by folding along one fold hinge. The resulting folds are concentric and a combination of class 1a, 1b and 3 type. The changes in the arc length, layer thickness, limb dip and wavelength with progressive folding in marble layers, are discussed.The microstructure and texture of the folded marble and limestone layers have been investigated optically and by means of an X-ray texture goniometer. The inner fold arc exhibits a strong preferred orientation, whereas in the outer fold are the preferred orientation is poorly developed. Differences in the fabric in medium-grained marble and fine-grained limestone layers have been attributed to the difference in mechanism of deformation.     

泡沫轻质材料试验研究的均匀设计方法及配方优化

泡沫轻质材料是一种用于岩土工程的新型材料。采用均匀试验设计方法进行材料的配方试验,运用多元非线性回归方法进行方差分析,分析了试验因素的主效应和因素间的交互效应,并建立有约束的非线性规划问题,采用最优化方法进行寻优计算,得出满足工程要求的最优配比。     

Optimization of sulfur adsorption over Ag-zeolite nanoadsorbent by experimental design method

Environmental protection has mentioned the need to cut out all of fuels sulfur compounds. One of the most important processes that affect sulfur removal in atmospheric condition is the interaction of liquid fuels with solid sulfur removal adsorbents such as zeolites. To investigate the nano-AgX-zeolite efficiency for the sulfur adsorption process, a set of experimental tests was arranged and conducted by Box–Behnken design software, in an adsorption laboratory setup. The selected variables comprised metal percent, adsorption temperature and calcination temperature. The parameter levels were 0.5–10 %, 30–120 and 200–500 °C, respectively. The experiment results were used to find the statistical model. The results demonstrate that the sulfur concentration level is 48.36 ppm in the last product at 83 °C for adsorption temperature, 5.53 % for metal percent and 436 °C for calcination temperature in constant pH and constant process time.     

Formulation and characterization of an appropriate lime-based mortar for use with a porous limestone

Several studies have shown that the degradation of architectural monuments constructed using Tuffeau stones from Val de Loire region of France over a period of time are often related to use of mortars that are not compatible with the Tuffeau stones. For this reason, it is important to ensure physico-chemical compatibility between Tuffeau and the mortar. To alleviate differences in compatibility characteristics, a mortar is prepared from hydrated lime and aggregates obtained from the crushing of Tuffeau stone and used in this study. The key parameters that influence the strength and durability characteristics such as mechanical resistance, water transfer properties, and physico-chemical properties were identified and studied. Based on these studies, recommendations are offered for the preparation of a more compatible mortar that can be used in the construction and restoration of monuments using Tuffeau stone.     

Low-cost biochar derived from herbal residue: characterization and application for ciprofloxacin adsorption

Thermally carbonization biochar produced from a traditional Chinese herbal medicine waste (Astragalus mongholicus residue) was investigated for its performance in ciprofloxacin adsorption. Batch sorption experiments were conducted, and scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller surface area analyses were employed to characterize the biochar. The results demonstrated that thermal activation process improves the adsorbent characteristics. Biochar produced at 800 °C had the best adsorption capacity, a better pore structure and the largest surface areas. The adsorption process fit well to a pseudo-second-order kinetics model. The adsorption isothermal model results revealed that the adsorption process of ciprofloxacin is described better by the Freundlich isotherm and the type of adsorption is a chemical process. The maximum adsorption of ciprofloxacin occurred at pH 7. The present research demonstrated that A. mongholicus biochar might be an attractive and cost-effective adsorbent with good adsorption performance for removing ciprofloxacin from water solution.     

灰岩拉伸过程中细观结构演化的分形特征

岩石损伤演化的本质在于内部微细观结构发生了不可逆的劣化,它会在岩石表面体现出来。通过带扫描电镜的伺服试验机对岩石进行了拉伸试验,实时采集了岩石变形破坏过程中表面细观形貌的SEM照片。试验表明岩石在变形破坏过程中表面形貌将发生不可逆的演化直至最终出现宏观拉伸裂纹。针对SEM照片,借助数字图像处理的方法进行了阈值分割及边缘检测,计算出SEM数字图像的分形维数作为描述岩石表面细观形貌的参数。研究表明,随着载荷的增大,岩石表面的分形维数也逐渐增大,岩石的损伤程度加剧。     

Equilibrium data and process design for adsorption of disperse dyes onto Alunite

Adsorption of disperse dyes from aqueous solutions onto calcined alunite has been investigated to assess the possibility of using alunite for removing disperse dyes from aqueous solutions. The effects of particle size, adsorbent mass, initial pH and temperature of the dye solution on the adsorption capacities have been evaluated. Acidic pH was favorable for the adsorption of all dyes: Disperse Blue 56 (DB56), Disperse Red 74 (DR74) and Disperse Yellow 119 (DY119). The experimental data were correlated reasonably well by the Langmuir isotherm and the isotherm parameters (K_L and a_L) have been calculated. The adsorption capacities were found to be 498, 525 and 500 mg of dye per g of calcined alunite for DB56, DR74 and DY119, respectively. The single-stage batch adsorber design of the adsorption of disperse dyes onto alunite has been studied based on the Langmuir isotherm equation.     

Composite flow laws derived from high temperature experimental data on limestone and marble

An interesting feature of recently published experimental data on high temperature deformation of Solnhofen limestone and Carrara marble is that it is not possible, for either rock, to fit isothermal points on a log strain-rate vs. log stress plot to a single straight line as required for a flow law of the familiar form e = Aexp(- H/RT)σⁿ. Instead for Solnhofen limestone the data can be well fitted to two straight line segments suggesting a change from power law with high stress exponent (at high stress) to power law with low stress exponent at low stress. However, the constant strain-rate data are even better fitted by a single composite flow law formed by addition of the two power laws; a single flow law operates throughout but the strain-rate contributions of the two components change in response to changing stress. Published microstructural evidence supports this composite flow law approach.For Carrara marble constant data provides much poorer control and it is possible to propose several composite flow laws (formed by addition of two or three separate power-law components) all of which provide reasonable correspondence with the data. Stress relaxation data is then used both to test these flow models and to suggest others. Flow models that are broadly compatible with constant and stress relaxation data can then be tested against microstructural measurements.It is suggested that, by treating a set of composite flow laws as alternative hypotheses to be tested against all available data, a more realistic Theological model will result. Composite flow laws have the major advantage of being able to represent a smooth transition from one dominant deformation mechanism to another irrespective of how wide the transition zone may be.     

Arsenate uptake by calcite: Macroscopic and spectroscopic characterization of adsorption and incorporation mechanisms

Batch uptake experiments and X-ray element mapping and spectroscopic techniques were used to investigate As(V) (arsenate) uptake mechanisms by calcite, including adsorption and coprecipitation. Batch sorption experiments in calcite-equilibrated suspensions (pH 8.3; PCO₂ = 10^−3.5 atm) reveal rapid initial sorption to calcite, with sorption rate gradually decreasing with time as available sorption sites decrease. An As(V)-calcite sorption isotherm determined after 24 h equilibration exhibits Langmuir-like behavior up to As concentrations of 300 μM. Maximum distribution coefficient values (K_d), derived from a best fit to a Langmuir model, are ∼190 L kg⁻¹.Calcite single crystals grown in the presence of As(V) show well-developed rhombohedral morphology with characteristic growth hillocks on surfaces at low As(V) concentrations (?5 μM), but habit modification is evident at As(V) concentrations ?30 μM in the form of macrostep development preferentially on the − vicinal surfaces of growth hillocks. Micro-X-ray fluorescence element mapping of surfaces shows preferential incorporation of As in the − vicinal faces relative to + vicinals. EXAFS fit results for both adsorption and coprecipitation samples confirm that As occurs in the 5+ oxidation state in tetrahedral coordination with oxygen, i.e., as arsenate. For adsorption samples, As(V) forms inner-sphere surface complexes via corner-sharing with Ca octahedra. As(V) coprecipitated with calcite substitutes in carbonate sites but with As off-centered, as indicated by two Ca shells, and with likely disruption of local structure. The results indicate that As(V) interacts strongly with the calcite surface, similar to often-cited analog phosphate, and uptake can occur via both adsorption and coprecipitation reactions. Therefore, calcite may be effective for partial removal of dissolved arsenate from aquatic and soil systems.     

化学溶液及其水压作用下单裂纹灰岩破裂的细观试验

采用岩石破裂全过程的细观力学试验系统进行了化学溶液及其水压力作用下单裂纹灰岩压缩破裂试验。通过电镜扫描、X衍射、水质分析等分析方法,对岩石微观形貌、矿物成分等进行研究。采用数字显微系统,对其压缩破裂过程进行实时观测和记录,得到了岩石破裂过程的细观图像;探讨了蒸馏水、不同pH值的0.1 mol/L Na2SO4溶液及其水压力作用对单裂纹灰岩变形和强度特性的影响。研究表明,受化学侵蚀后岩石的结构及成分均发生了不同程度的变化,导致其非均质性增加,而强度、弹性模量等降低,其力学性质劣化的程度与岩石中矿物成分的变化程度相关;孔隙水压的作用改变了岩石内部裂隙面和颗粒间的受力状态,加速了岩石裂纹的扩展,降低了岩石强度,水化学溶液及其水压作用使得岩石的破裂形式变得更为复杂。     

铁路岩溶路基注浆材料试验研究

探讨了水泥、水玻璃及固化剂对粘土固化浆液性能的影响,提出了粘土固化浆液的最佳配比,通过试验分析了浆液在注浆过程中的扩散规律及防渗堵水效果。     

New method for in situ characterization of loose material for landslide mapping purpose

The assessment of grain size distribution and plasticity of loose geological material, during in situ geological investigations, is not obvious. Visual appreciation allows an approximative quantification of the coarse granulometric fractions, but not of the fine ones. Field soils determination methods suggested until now, are visual and tactile tests leading to a very rough estimate, which is only qualitative and not very reproducible. The new proposed field test (GEOLEP method) allows a quick quantification of the fine fraction of loose material. It allows the determination of the sand fraction (fine and medium grained sands) as well as the methylene blue value of the samples. The necessary equipment to perform this test is light and compact and the time needed to analyze one sample is approximately 15 min. Thus it is also possible to carry out numerous measurements in one day. The calibrations were carried out on a selection of 13 natural samples, chosen for their representativeness of the typical alpine quaternary deposits. The results obtained with GEOLEP method are relevant compared with standardized laboratory tests; the obtained correlation indexes are of 73% for the comparison with laboratory stain test results and of 89% with a laboratory method using a similar procedure than the field test. The correlation we performed with Atterberg's limits tests shows that a rough approximation of plasticity index can also be obtained (R² = 75%). This method thus brings a new tool which should allow taking into account the lithological factor (by some quantitative and representative variables) in a reliable way for the evaluation of landslide hazards.     

Petrographical and geochemical characterization of Comblanchien limestone (Bourgogne,France): A fingerprint of the building stone provenance

The Comblanchien limestone is a well-known building stone that deserves a quantitative characterization in order to be able to certify its origin. We compare petrographical and geochemical characteristics of limestones commercialized under the name of Comblanchien to those of one of their competitors (VATC, a Portuguese coated grain-bearing limestone). From macroscopic and microscopic observations, the distinction is somehow difficult but the coated grain-bearing Comblanchien samples have δ¹³C values (from +1.75 to +2.25‰) different from those of the VATC sample (negative δ¹³C value). As an example of application of these results, three samples from a building site near Paris are also studied in order to verify their provenance. We conclude that they do not come from quarries from the Comblanchien area, but likely from Portugal. The study shows that a detailed analysis of building limestones may provide a robust tool for discriminating between currently mined stones of different provenances, and thus open the possibility to attach to a given limestone a fingerprint, an identity card, and if required a commercial label.     

介微孔复合沸石分子筛对重金属离子吸附性能的实验研究

以介微孔复合沸石分子筛MCM-41／ZSM-3为吸附剂，采用静态吸附方法初步研究了其对重金属离子Cu^2 、Zn^2 、Pb^2 、Cd^2 的吸附性能。结果表明：对于配置的60mg／dm^3重金属离子溶液，使用分子筛用量为10g／dm^3时，在较宽的pH范围内MCM-41／ZSM-3对Cu^2 、Zn^2 、Pb^2 、Cd^2 的吸附率可达90％以上；对等温吸附曲线的回归分析得出Cu^2 、Zn^2 、Pb^2 、Cd^2 在实验浓度范围内符合Langmuir单吸附位吸附曲线且具有较大的吸附容量。     

Application of statistical methods for predicting uniaxial compressive strength of limestone rocks using nondestructive tests

Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of an intact rock is an important geotechnical parameter for engineering applications. Using standard laboratory tests to determine UCS is a difficult, expensive and time-consuming task. The main purpose of this study is to develop a general model for predicting UCS of limestone samples and to investigate the relationships among UCS, Schmidt hammer rebound and P-wave velocity (V _P). For this reason, some samples of limestone rocks were collected from the southwestern Iran. In order to evaluate a correlation, the measured and predicted values were examined utilizing simple and multivariate regression techniques. In order to check the performance of the proposed equation, coefficient of determination (R ²), root-mean-square error, mean absolute percentage error, variance accounts for (VAF %), Akaike Information Criterion and performance index were determined. The results showed that the proposed equation by multivariate regression could be applied effectively to predict UCS from its combinations, i.e., ultrasonic pulse velocity and Schmidt hammer hardness. The results also showed that considering high prediction performance of the models developed, they can be used to perform preliminary stages of rock engineering assessments. It was evident that such prediction studies not only provide some practical tools but also contribute to better understanding of the main controlling index parameters of UCS of rocks.     

近井口高压管汇布置结构设计及选材优化研究

为了研究和改善油气资源钻井工程中高压管汇系统受到流固体冲蚀的影响,本文根据近井口常规管汇布置情况,建立了0°、45°、90°三种角度弯管模型,并根据计算流体力学基本理论,结合实际工况,对压裂弯管内部流场进行数值模拟,最后设计了0°与45°压裂安装角度管汇布置结构,并根据此3种弯管安装角度及弯管材料选用,进行了室内冲蚀试验研究,得出了如下结论：（1）在不同的安装角度下,随着冲次增大,流体出口速度越大,在任何安装角度下,弯管部位会发生较大的速度波动,因此速度波动太大弯管部位会受到严重冲蚀;（2）高速流体冲蚀区域主要分布在近井口压裂头部位的管道入口位置,在两种错位情况下,管汇整体流体速度由出口到入口逐渐变小;（3）压裂头部位5个出口部位存在较大的冲蚀速度,速度和压力呈现阶梯状的变化,中间有压力和速度稳定时期,速度大的位置压力小。当安装角度为0°和45°时,流体的冲击速度会较小;（4）42CrMo防冲蚀能力较强,管道材料选用42CrMo有助于延长管道使用寿命。     

Flowpath structure in a limestone aquifer: multi-borehole logging investigations at the hydrogeological experimental site of Poitiers, France

Since 2002, a new hydrogeological experimental site (HES) has been developed in Poitiers, France. The overall research objective related to this site is to improve the understanding of flow and solute transport in carbonate aquifers. The benchmarking of various types of numerical models against the HES field data is one of the main research projects supported by three national scientific programs. Within this framework, the purpose of this report is to synthesize existing knowledge about both aquifer geology and flowpath structure, based on core analysis and well logging. The combined use of core-hole data, borehole logs and outcrop data provide valuable information about lithostratigraphy and fracturing. The comparison of flow-meter data with borehole images indicates that flowpaths in the HES aquifer are strongly constrained within (1) subhorizontal karstic structures and (2) subvertical fractures. The presence of karstic levels appears to be conditioned by the stratigraphy and are unevenly developed in the HES. The vertical interconnectivity between the three karstic levels seems to result from fractures occurrence in this limestone formation. Following the observations, data and interpretations, a conceptual model of the Dogger aquifer is proposed.

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Résumé  La vocation première du Site Expérimental Hydrogéologique (SEH) de Poitiers, France, est de fournir des données pertinentes-y compris des chroniques ou expériences long terme-pour la caractérisation, la quantification et la modélisation des transferts d’eau et de solutés dans les aquifères carbonatés. Depuis 2002, les investigations menées sur le SEH ont permis de recueillir une importante quantité de données concernant un aquifère calcaire captif de 100 m d’épaisseur. Ces données servent actuellement de support à un exercice de modélisation comparée (benchmark) soutenu par trois programmes scientifiques nationaux. Dans le cadre de ce projet, l’objectif ici est de synthétiser les connaissances actuelles relatives à la géologie et la structure des écoulements dans l’aquifère du Dogger. La structure lithostratigraphique et la fracturation de l’aquifère sont analysées à partir des carottes de forages, des affleurements, et des diagraphies de puits. L’analyse croisée des données de débitmétrie verticale et des imageries de parois des forages indique que les écoulements sont principalement associés à des structures karstiques subhorizontales et des fractures subverticales. Les niveaux karstiques sont irrégulièrement répartis sur le SEH mais apparaissent fortement corrélés avec des niveaux stratigraphiques précis. La connectivité hydraulique des différents niveaux karstiques semble liée à la fracturation des calcaires.

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Resumen  Desde 2002, se desarrolló en Potiers, Francia, un sitio experimental hidrogeológico (SEH). El objetivo general de la investigación relacionada a este sitio es mejorar el entendimiento del flujo y transporte de solutos en acuíferos calcáreos. El punto de referencia de varios tipos de modelos numéricos utilizando los datos del SEH es uno de los principales proyectos de investigación financiados por tres programas científicos nacionales. Dentro de este marco, el propósito de este reporte es sintetizar el conocimiento existente tanto acerca de la geología como de la estructura de los caminos de flujo, basado en el análisis de testigos y perfiles de pozos. El uso combinado de testigos, perfiles de pozos e datos de afloramientos provee información valiosa acerca de la litoestratigrafía y el fracturamiento. La comparación de datos de medidores de flujo con imágenes de pozos indica que los caminos de flujo en el acuífero del SEH están fuertemente condicionados por (1) estructuras cársticas subhorizontales, y (2) fracturas subverticales. La presencia de niveles cársticos pareciera estar condicionada por la estratigrafía y estar desarrollada en forma no igualmente distribuida dentro del SHE. La interconectividad vertical entre tres niveles cársticos sería el resultado de la ocurrencia de fracturas en la formación de las calizas. En base a las observaciones, los datos e interpretaciones, se propone un modelo conceptual del acuífero Dogger.