Observational analysis of moisture evolution and variability in the boundary layer during the dryline on 22 May 2002

An observational analysis of boundary layer moisture evolution during the dryline on 22 May 2002 is presented. This dryline occurred during the International H₂O Project (IHOP) and was well observed by a variety of instruments at the intensive observing region (IOR), Homestead site. Although the observed strong upward air motion and the well-mixed boundary layer favored convection, the dryline did not trigger a convective storm. Several operational and research forecast models predicted deep convection at the IOR. High spatial and temporal resolution observational data from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) lidar instruments, Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI), sounding profiles and simulation results are used to investigate the role of moisture during this dryline. It is hypothesized that in addition to convection and lifting, abundant, deep and persistent moisture is required for a dryline to trigger convection. The possible reason why the dryline failed to trigger convection over the IOR is discussed.     

Meso-beta scale numerical simulations of terrain drag-induced along-stream circulations. Part II: Concentration of potential vorticity within dryline bulges

Summary Hydrostatic and nonhydrostatic simulation models are employed to study the intensification of a terrain drag-induced dryline. The study develops a multi-stage theory for the evolution of the dryline including the concentration of potential vorticity accompanying meso-gamma scale dryline bulges.The numerical simulations indicate three fundamental stages of dryline intensification all of which are either directly or indirectly a result of the terrain-drag on the mid/upper-tropospheric jet stream by the Front Range of the Colorado Rocky Mountains. The first stage involves the downward momentum flux accompanying a large amplitude hydrostatic mountain wave which induces a downslope windstorm along the lee slopes. The surge of momentum (i.e., the dry, warm air associated with the downslope windstorm) propagates down the leeslope and modifies an existing weak dryline boundary. As the downslope windstorm initiates an undular bore along the lee slopes, the high momentum gradient which propagates downstream accompanying the bore, as well as the strong lower tropospheric sinking motions ahead of the bore, contract the scale of the surface moisture boundary between the dry air from above the leeslope and the moist air over the High Plains. This process further strengthens the dryline.The second stage involves the coupling of the terrain drag-induced along-stream ageostrophic front within the midtroposphere to the boundary layer through a thermally-indirect circulation. As the along-stream ageostrophic circulation intensifies within the middle troposphere down-stream from the mountain wave, sinking air parcels originating above 40 kPa descend to below 60 kPa over the High Plains where surface pressures are, only 85 kPa. These descending air parcels within the upstream branch of the along-stream ageostrophic thermally-indirect circulation contain high values of momentum and very low dewpoint values. As the planetary boundary layer (PBL) deepens due to surface warming during the morning hours, momentum and dry air from the midtropospheric along-stream ageostrophic front are entrained into the PBL. This process amplifies the bore-induced hydrostatic dryline bulge via low-level ageostrophic confluence.Finally, regions of low Richardson number (arising from strong vertical shears) within the amplifying midtropospheric along-stream ageostrophic thermally-indirect circulation become preferred regions for the development of non-hydrostatic evanescent internal gravity waves. These waves are embedded within the hydrostatic along-stream front above the low-level dryline and are accomapanied by very significant values of vertical momentum flux which act to focus the meso-gamma scale structure of the dryline into smaller scale bulges where low-level winds and vorticities are very high. This meso-gamma scale process follows the hydrostatic tilting and vortex tube stretching which creates meso-beta scale maxima of mid-lower tropospheric vorticity. The turbulent momentum fluxes accompanying wavebreaking within the nonhydrostatic dryline bulge create very large (i.e., stratospheric values of) potential vorticity near 70 kPa due to the nonconservation of potential vorticity on isentropic surfaces.With 30 Figures     

A High-Resolution Modeling Study of the 19 June 2002 Convective Initiation Case during IHOP 2002: Localized Forcing by Horizontal Convective Rolls

The initiation processes of one of the initial convective cells near and on the east side of a dryline on 19 June 2002 during the IHOP 2002 field experiment in the central United States is analyzed in detail based on a high-resolution numerical simulation. Prominent horizontal convective rolls and associated near-surface moisture convergence bands [called roll convergence bands(RCBs) here] develop within the convective boundary layer(CBL) due to surface heating, in the hours leading to convective initiation(CI). The RCBs east of the dryline are advected toward the primary dryline convergence boundary(PDCB) by the southerly moist flow as the CBL deepens with time. Backward trajectories of air parcels forming the initial precipitating updraft of the convective cell are found to primarily originate at about 1–1.5 km above ground, within the upper portion of the shallower CBL earlier on. The representative air parcel is found to follow and stay on top of a surface RCB as the RCB moves toward the PDCB, but the RCB forcing alone is not enough to initiate convection. As this RCB gets close to the PDCB, it moves into a zone of mesoscale convergence and a deeper CBL that exhibits an upward moisture bulge associated with the PDCB. The combined upward forcing of the RCB and the mesoscale PDCB convergence quickly lifts the representative air parcel above its level of free convection to initiate convection. A conceptual model summarizing the CI processes is proposed.     

2010年冬季北京初雪预报难点分析

北京地区非典型性降雪是预报中的难题,尤其是偏东风在弱降雪过程中的作用难以把握。本文利用常规观测资料与北京地区特种观测资料,对北京2010年冬季(2010年12月至2011年2月)空报的初雪个例和实际初雪个例进行了诊断分析,得出了一些有意义的结果:偏东风的干湿性质取决于东部上游地区的干湿条件。当上游为干中心时,它是一支干平流。12月12日夜间的降雪空报是由于尽管中低层上升运动显著,但是边界层湿度太小,偏东风实际为一支干平流,对北京地区增湿没有明显贡献。北部干冷空气的快速南下控制北京地区,也是预报出现偏差的重要原因。2月9日初雪过程,是边界层高湿区中,弱的辐合上升运动作用下产生的稳定性降雪。对比发现边界层水汽条件在北京地区冬季降雪中非常重要。当边界层水汽条件差,即使中低层上升运动系统明显,也很难形成有效降水。而在边界层受充沛的暖湿气团控制并配合有弱辐合上升运动,即使中高层并无明显的辐合系统,也可产生明显降水。     

Simulation of monsoon intraseasonal variability in NCEP CFSv2 and its role on systematic bias

We have evaluated the simulation of Indian summer monsoon and its intraseasonal oscillations in the National Centers for Environmental Prediction climate forecast system model version 2 (CFSv2). The dry bias over the Indian landmass in the mean monsoon rainfall is one of the major concerns. In spite of this dry bias, CFSv2 shows a reasonable northward propagation of convection at intraseasonal (30–60 day) time scale. In order to document and understand this dry bias over the Indian landmass in CFSv2 simulations, a two pronged investigation is carried out on the two major facets of Indian summer monsoon: one, the air–sea interactions and two, the large scale vertical heating structure in the model. Our analysis shows a possible bias in the co-evolution of convection and sea surface temperature in CFSv2 over the equatorial Indian Ocean. It is also found that the simulated large scale vertical heat source (Q1) and moisture sink (Q2) over the Indian region are biased relative to observational estimates. Finally, this study provides a possible explanation for the dry precipitation bias over the Indian landmass in the simulated mean monsoon on the basis of the biases associated with the simulated ocean–atmospheric processes and the vertical heating structure. This study also throws some light on the puzzle of CFSv2 exhibiting a reasonable northward propagation at the intraseasonal time scale (30–60 day) despite a drier monsoon over the Indian land mass.     

Soil moisture-temperature feedbacks at meso-scale during summer heat waves over Western Europe

This paper investigates the impact of soil moisture-temperature feedback during heatwaves occurring over France between 1989 and 2008. Two simulations of the weather research and forecasting regional model have been analysed, with two different land-surface models. One resolves the hydrology and is able to simulate summer dryness, while the other prescribes constant and high soil moisture and hence no soil moisture deficit. The sensitivity analysis conducted for all heatwave episodes highlights different soil moisture-temperature responses (1) over low-elevation plains, (2) over mountains and (3) over coastal regions. In the plains, soil moisture deficit induces less evapotranspiration and higher sensible heat flux. This has the effect of heating the planetary boundary layer and at the same time of creating a general condition of higher convective instability and a slight increase of shallow cloud cover. A positive feedback is created which increases the temperature anomaly during the heatwaves. In mountainous regions, enhanced heat fluxes over dry soil reinforce upslope winds producing strong vertical motion over the mountain slope, first triggered by thermal convection. This, jointly to the instability conditions, favors convection triggering and produces clouds and precipitation over the mountains, reducing the temperature anomaly. In coastal regions, dry soil enhances land/sea thermal contrast, strengthening sea-breeze circulation and moist cold marine air advection. This damps the magnitude of the heatwave temperature anomaly in coastal areas, expecially near the Mediterranean coast. Hence, along with heating in the plains, soil dryness can also have a significant cooling effect over mountains and coastal regions due to meso-scale circulations.     

A Re-examination of Density Effects in Eddy Covariance Measurements of CO2 Fluxes

Corrections of density effects resulting from air-parcel expansion/compression are important in interpreting eddy covariance fluxes of water vapor and CO2 when open-path systems are used. To account for these effects, mean vertical velocity and perturbation of the density of dry air are two critical parameters in treating those physical processes responsible for density variations. Based on various underlying assumptions, different studies have obtained different formulas for the mean vertical velocity and perturbation of the density of dry air, leading to a number of approaches to correct density effects. In this study, we re-examine physical processes related to different assumptions that are made to formulate the density effects. Specifically, we re-examine the assumptions of a zero dry air flux and a zero moist air flux in the surface layer, used for treating density variations, and their implications for correcting density effects. It is found that physical processes in relation to the assumption of a zero dry air flux account for the influence of dry air expansion/compression on density variations. Meanwhile, physical processes in relation to the assumption of a zero moist air flux account for the influence of moist air expansion/compression on density variations. In this study, we also re-examine mixing ratio issues. Our results indicate that the assumption of a zero dry air flux favors the use of the mixing ratio relative to dry air, while the assumption of a zero moist air flux favors the use of the mixing ratio relative to the total moist air. Additionally, we compare different formula for the mean vertical velocity, generated by air-parcel expansion/compression, and for density effect corrections using eddy covariance data measured over three boreal ecosystems.     

2011年7月初一次大暴雨过程分析

2011年7月初四川中部至东部出现一次持续的强降水过程,采用NCEP再分析资料、常规观测资料、自动站资料和FY-2E资料对此次过程进行诊断分析。结果表明,本次区域性大暴雨过程主要影响系统为副高外围西南气流和中尺度对流云团,副高西伸带来充沛的暖湿气流向川内输送,与北下干冷空气在四川上空汇合,增强大气层结不稳定;雨区上空对流层内有强上升运动且中低层不稳定呈高温高湿状态;700hPa水汽通量散度分析显示本次暴雨水汽源于孟加拉湾,水汽辐合区内有TBB大值中心及视热源、视水汽汇大值区;本次降水为对流性降水,水汽凝结加热对大气加热起重要作用,视热源、视水汽汇及垂直螺旋度与暴雨有很好的对应关系,当强降水出现时螺旋度呈(高空)上负(低空)下正分布,高层负螺旋度的生消与降水有更好的对应关系;雨区上空水汽收支显示南、北两边界是主要水汽来源,且水汽以南北向辐合为主。      

水汽凝结过程与高低空急流对冷锋环流的作用

文中利用包括水汽凝结过程的湿大气原始方程模式，研究了高空西风急流和低空南风急流中冷锋环流和垂直运动场的演变，计算结果显示:水汽凝结过程的加入，使锋区垂直运动和锋面环流大大增强，上升运动随时间发生剧烈的变化；湿过程对锋面环流的作用发生在水汽饱和并发生凝结之后，未饱和水汽的存在对锋面环流没有什么作用；与干大气模式中高空西风急流是造成冷锋环流演变的主要因子情况不同，低空南风急流在湿大气中对锋面环流有极为重要的作用，其作用至少与高空西风急流相等；在激发锋区重力波上，低空南风急流的作用可能更加明显；水汽凝结湿过程的加入，不论是在高空西风急流下还是在低空南风急流中，都能在锋区激发出波长约为300 km的重力波，并以大于锋面移速的相速传入暖区。     

The Observed and Simulated Major Summer Climate Features in Northwest China and Their Sensitivity to Land Surface Processes

Northwest China （NWC） is a typical arid and semi-arid region. In this study, the main summer climate features over NWC are presented and the performance of an atmospheric general circulation model （NCEP GCM/SSiB） over this region is evaluated. Satellite-derived vegetation products are applied in the model. Based on comparison with observational data and Reanalysis II data, the model generally captures major features of the NWC summer energy balance and circulation. These features include： a high surface tem- perature center dominating the planetary boundary layer; widespread descending motion; an anticyclone （cyclone） located in the lower and middle （upper） troposphere, covering most parts of central NWC; and the precipitation located mainly in the high elevation areas surrounding NWC.
The sensitivity of the summer energy balance and circulation over NWC and surrounding regions to land surface processes is assessed with specified land cover change. In the sensitivity experiment, the degradation over most parts of NWC, except the Taklimakan desert, decreases the surface-absorbed radiation and leads to weaker surface thermal effects. In northern Xinjiang and surrounding regions, less latent heating causes stronger anomalous lower-level anticyclonic circulation and upper-level cyclonic circulation, leading to less summer precipitation and higher surface temperature. Meanwhile, the dry conditions in the Hexi Corridor produce less change in the latent heat flux. The circulation change to the north of this area plays a domi- nant role in indirectly changing lower-level cyclonic conditions, producing more convergence, weaker vertical descending motion, and thus an increase in the precipitation over this region.     

亚洲夏季风建立前后对流层温度场演变特征及其热力成因

对１９９６年亚洲夏季风爆发前后（３～６月）印度及南海季风区对流层温度演变特征及其热力成因作了比较分析。结果表明：印度和南海夏季风的爆发与各季风区对流层中上层南北温差逆转密切相关,而南北温差逆转是由１０～３０°Ｎ之间纬度带对流层的季节性增暖引起的。夏季风爆发前期,南海季风区的增温主要由暖平流及非绝热加热过程（主要为凝结潜热）共同作用所致。春季在印度季风区大陆上空存在显著的下沉绝热增温,使得对流层中上层的增温率比华南大陆及邻近地区上空的增温率显著得多。但印度季风区冬末春初的南北温差（南暖北冷）也非常明显,以至该地区对流层中上层增暖到引起南北温差发生逆转的时间较迟,而南海季风区对流层中层南北温差发生逆转的时间相对要早,因而印度夏季风比南海夏季风迟爆发。     

2008年台风“风神”强迫次级环流的诊断分析

利用WRF（weather research and forecasting）模式模拟资料对2008年06号台风“风神”进行诊断分析,采用准地转PV-ω方程对台风外围中尺度对流系统较强的6月20日10时（世界时）的资料进行分析.通过PV-ω方程诊断了潜热、摩擦及干动力过程对台风次级环流的作用,结果显示潜热强迫产生的次级环流最强,摩擦强迫主要集中在边界层,而干动力过程则在台风中心附近产生影响.加入摩擦、潜热得到的准平衡流场能够描述70％左右的台风环流.环境垂直切变在台风中心附近强迫产生横向次级环流的垂直切变与环境垂直切变相反,次级环流会使得台风一侧的上升气流减弱而另一侧上升气流增强,从而使得台风不对称增强.同时,发现垂直切变可能在其最大垂直切变方向右侧激发台风外围中尺度系统.通过构造理想的准平衡的台风及叠加在其上的中尺度系统环流,选择不同的切变和环境平均气流,发现增大切变会使得强迫次级环流增强,而增大环境平均气流不一定能够使得强迫次级环流增大,反而可能使得强迫次级环流减弱.通过诊断发现由切变强迫次级环流造成的中尺度对流系统上方扰动可能是中尺度对流系统持续存在的原因.     

Impacts of Soil Moisture on the Numerical Simulation of a Post-Landfall Storm

Surface heat and moisture fluxes are important to the evolution of a tropical storm after its landfall. Soil moisture is one of the essential components that influence surface heating and moisture fluxes. In this study, the impact of soil moisture on a pre-landfall numerical simulation of Tropical Storm Bill(2015), which had a much longer lifespan over land, is investigated by using the research version of the NCEP Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting(HWRF) model. It is found that increased soil moisture with SLAB scheme before storm's landfall tends to produce a weaker storm after landfall and has negative impacts on storm track simulation. Further diagnoses with different land surface schemes and sensitivity experiments indicate that the increase in soil moisture inside the storm corresponds to a strengthened vertical mixing within the storm boundary layer, which is conducive to the decay of storm and has negative impacts on storm evolution. In addition, surface diabatic heating effects over the storm environment are also found to be an important positive contribution to the storm evolution over land, but their impacts are not so substantial as boundary layer vertical mixing inside the storm. The overall results highlight the importance and uncertainty of soil moisture in numerical model simulations of landfalling hurricanes and their further evolution over land.     

Impact of Mid- and Upper-Level Dry Air on Tropical Cyclone Genesis and Intensification: A Modeling Study of Durian (2001)

The impact of mid- and upper-level dry air, represented by low relative humidity (RH) values, on the genesis of tropical cyclone (TC) Durian (2001) in the South China Sea was investigated by a series of numerical experiments using the Weather Research and Forecasting model. The mid-level RH was lowered in different regions relative to TC Durian (2001)'s genesis location. Results suggest that the location of dry air was important to Durian (2001)'s genesis and intensification. The rapid development of the TC was accompanied by sustained near-saturated mid- and upper-level air, whereas low humidity decelerated its development. Water vapor budget analysis showed that moisture at mid and upper levels was mainly supplied by the vertical convergence of moisture flux and the divergence terms, and consumed by the condensation process. The horizontal convergence of moisture flux term supplied moisture in the air moistening process but consumed moisture in the air drying process. With a dryer mid- and upper-level environment, convective and stratiform precipitation were both inhibited. The upward mass fluxes and the diabatic heating rates associated with these two precipitation types were also suppressed. Generally, convection played the dominant role, since the impact of the stratiform process on vertical mass transportation and diabatic heating was much weaker. The vorticity budget showed that the negative vorticity convergence term, which was closely related to the inhibited convection, caused the vorticity to decrease above the lower troposphere in a dryer environment. The negative vorticity tendency is suggested to slow down the vertical coherence and the development rate of TCs.     

EVOLUTION OF TROPOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE FIELDS AND CORRESPONDING THERMAL MECHANISMS BEFORE/AFTER ONSET PERIODS OF ASIAN SUMMER MONSOON

The evolution of the tropospheric temperature fields over Indian and South China Sea monsoon areas and their thermal mechanisms are compared and analyzed during the period from March to June, 1996. The results show that the onsets of the Indian and South China Sea summer monsoons are closely associated with the seasonal warming in the troposphere over the zonal belt of 10°N～30°N in these areas, which leads to the inversion of meridional temperature gradient. During the pre-onset period, the warming over the South China Sea monsoon region is mainly due to the warm horizontal advection and diabatic (latent) heating processes. Meanwhile, the warming is suppressed by the vertical adiabatic process (cooling). In spring over the Indian monsoon region, the significant adiabatic heating due to the subsidence motion, which compensates the cooling due to the strong cold advection and diabatic cooling processes, results in a larger warming rate than over the South China Sea monsoon region. However, the meridional temperature gradient over the Indian monsoon region is so large during the late winter and early spring that it takes longer time to warm the troposphere to have the reversion of meridional temperature gradient than it does over the South China Sea monsoon region. It results in the phenomenon that the South China Sea summer monsoon generally breaks out earlier than the Indian summer monsoon.     

东北冷涡影响下江淮地区一次飑线过程的模拟分析

利用四维变分同化分析系统模拟和雷达拼图资料分析了2012年5月16日东北冷涡影响下的弱飑线过程。结果表明:较强的地面辐合线是该次过程在较弱稳定条件下被触发的重要原因,也是系统前期快速发展的重要原因;东北冷涡影响下中层不断输送干冷空气到江淮地区,飑线内对流部分由降水拖曳导致的下沉气流遇到夹卷进入下沉气流内的环境干空气,使得其中雨滴蒸发造成空气冷却,下沉到地面形成冷池;冷池形成之后,垂直风切变方向不垂直于系统,且切变值较弱,造成水平涡度不平衡,是该飑线发展相对较弱的主要原因,此外不稳定条件和湿度条件较差也可能是系统没有发展为强飑线的原因。该次飑线过程的重要特点是较强的地面辐合线;较干的环境条件,意味着凝结潜热释放较少,而系统中的垂直运动更多取决于冷池和垂直风切变之间的水平涡度平衡。     

Equilibrium mechanism analysis on the physical processes of IAP3.0

Based on the detection of the dynamic and thermodynamic functions of the physical processes in IAP3.0, the equilibrium mechanisms of the temperature, moisture and wind are analyzed. The negative feedback between the longwave radiation and temperature is verified. The cooling regulation of net radiation on temperature is mostly balanced by the heating of precipitation, the leading actions on temperature of other processes such as vertical diffusion, shallow cumulus convection and friction are merely available for lower air. The moisture consumption of precipitation is compensated on the whole by the provision of shallow cumulus convection, which sustains the moisture conservation to a high degree. The wind field is directly regulated by the momentum redistribution of cumulus, the dry adiabatic convection and vertical diffusion. Yet, the prominent influences of these processes are generally confined to the lower level. The east wind at low latitudes and the west wind at high latitudes are both weakened by the regulations and furthermore, by virtue of the transportation of mean meridional circulation, such a variation exactly maintains the angular momentum conservation.     

Analysis of an Ensemble of High-Resolution WRF Simulations for the Rapid Intensification of Super Typhoon Rammasun(2014)

Diagnostics are presented from an ensemble of high-resolution forecasts that differed markedly in their predictions of the rapid intensification(RI) of Typhoon Rammasun. We show that the basic difference stems from subtle differences in initializations of(a) 500-850-h Pa environmental winds, and(b) midlevel moisture and ventilation. We then describe how these differences impact on the evolving convective organization, storm structure, and the timing of RI. As expected,ascent, diabatic heating an...     

Role of synoptic-scale forcing in cyclogenesis over the Bay of Bengal

The cyclone frequency distribution over the Bay of Bengal during 1990–2009 was distinctly bimodal, with a primary post-monsoon peak and a secondary pre-monsoon peak, despite the very high convective available potential energy (CAPE) during the pre-monsoon. The location of the monsoon trough over the bay is a primary factor in tropical cyclogenesis. Because the trough was in the northernmost bay during the pre-monsoon season, cyclogenesis was inactive in the southern bay, where a strong southwesterly wind shear was found. In this season, moreover, a hot, dry air mass extending vertically from 950 to 600 hPa was advected from northwestern India toward the bay. Moist, warm southwesterly winds penetrating below the deep, dry air mass caused a prominent dryline to form aloft on the northwestern side of the bay. The synoptic-scale hot, dry air forcing to the bay suppressed the active convection necessary for cyclogenesis. The strength of the stable environmental layer, represented by convective inhibition (CIN), was extremely large, and acted as a cap over the northern and northwestern bay. Conversely, during the post-monsoon, there were no horizontal temperature or moisture gradients, and CAPE and CIN were fairly modest. The entire bay was covered by a very deep, moist layer from the surface to 700 hPa transported from the east. The monsoon trough position and the environmental CIN in combination can explain the lower frequency of cyclogenesis during the pre-monsoon compared with the post-monsoon season.     

长江中上游平原地区冬季雾观测分析

长江中上游年平均雾日数达到20~106 d,是我国主要雾区之一。利用2010年12月在江汉平原观测获得的边界层廓线和雾滴谱资料,重点分析了该地区冬季雾过程的边界层结构及其生消过程。结果表明:荆州冬季雾多出现在寒潮过境1~2 d后,多为平流辐射雾;雾顶发展是水汽在上层逆温下积累,并伴随200~300 m高度冷平流降温引起;近地层冷平流降温导致饱和水汽压减小,同时上层系统性下沉增温引起逆温增强,水汽积累促使强浓雾过程产生;低空急流促使外界偏干气流与雾体混合后雾滴蒸发,是该地区雾顶迅速下降的主要原因;平均数浓度为150~406个·cm-3,极大值达到1 983个·cm-3,平均液水含量为0.014~0.118 g·m-3,极值达到0.786 g·m-3,与南京和重庆强浓雾观测值相似,超过其他地区观测值。城市地区高气溶胶浓度,配合充足的水汽条件,使得荆州雾过程微物理参量数值较大,易出现能见度小于50 m,持续时间4~9 h的强浓雾过程。