Kaolinite – alkali interaction and effects on basic properties

The influence of type and amount of clays present in soils on their properties is well understood. The clays exert their influence through large specific surface area and charges on them. Their effect is mostly exhibited through inter particle bonding and subsequent particle associations. The mineralogical influence of soils in water is well documented. However, the change in soil water system because of presence some of the contaminants can greatly influence the soil behaviour. Some of the changes are due to formation of new compounds due to interactions between the soil and pollutant. The paper reports the effect of interaction of kaolinite mineral with alkali on the index properties of soils from which the geotechnical behaviour can be understood. Detailed X-ray diffraction studies have shown that sodium aluminum silicate hydroxide hydrate (NASH) is formed by clay alkali reactions. The type and amount of formation of the compound is influenced by the concentration of alkali solution. While the compound formed is in smaller quantities with 1 N NaOH solution, significantly high quantity is formed with 4 N NaOH solution. Presence of alumina is shown to play a significant role. It was observed that the formation of sodium aluminum silicate hydroxide hydrate is reduced in the presence of alumina. Specific gravity of contaminated clay soil was reduced which confirms the formation of new compounds. Water adsorption and specific surface area of soil are also influenced due to soil alkali interaction. The changes in the free swell and index properties of soil in the presence of alkali have been explained by the changes in soil fabric and the formation of new compound.     

Potassium Chloride Treatment to Control Alkali Induced Heave in Black Cotton Soil

The results presented in this paper shows that high concentrations of sodium hydroxide causes abnormal changes on the volume change behaviour of illite–smectite (interstratified mineral) soil due to mineralogical changes. The higher swell that occurs is shown in the form of a new second stage of swelling. Increase in negative charges on soil particles and mineralogical changes after interaction with soil, respectively, are responsible for the swelling in these two stages. However, potassium hydroxide does not induce such high swelling in soils. This is mainly due to the fixation of potassium ions. Hence an attempt has been made to control the swelling induced by sodium hydroxide by making used of potassium chloride as an additive. Potassium fixation which is not substantial at neutral pH is favoured at higher pH Addition of potassium chloride salt solution (as 2 and 5% solution) can reduce only the first stage of swelling by linking the unit layers of mineral by reducing development diffuse double layer near clay surface. Potassium chloride is unable to prevent the formation of mineralogical alteration due to soil alkali interaction and hence the swelling associated with mineralogical changes. X-ray diffraction studies have revealed that mineralogical changes leading to formation of zeolite by soil alkali interaction is not inhibited by potassium ions. Morphological changes studied by scanning electron microscope corroborate these observations. Also the compressibility of soil which is increased in alkali solution is reduced in the presence of potassium salts. This reduction is due to reduction in the first stage of swelling.     

Ferric chloride treatment to control alakli induced heave in weathered red earth

A detailed experimental investigation has been carried out to study the use of ferric chloride salt to control the undesirable volume changes induced by high concentrated alkali contamination on kaolinitic red earth. X-Ray diffraction studies have revealed that soil alkali interactions produce mineralogical changes and formation of new mineral such as zeolite, which are responsible for observed swelling in non-swelling kaolinitic soil. Loss of ferric oxide, which are known cementing agents has been attributed as one of the reasons for swelling in alkali contaminated soils. The consolidation behaviour of soil compacted with 5% ferric chloride solution by weight of solutions and inundated with alkali solutions as well as soil compacted with alkali and inundated with 5% ferric chloride by weight of solutions has been studied. To study the effect of amount of ferric chloride, the volume change behaviour of soil compacted with different weight percentages of ferric salts by weight of soil (1%, 3%, and 5%) and inundated with alkali solutions has also been studied. The swelling of soil compacted with alkali has been checked by inundating with 5% ferric chloride solutions due to neutralization of alkali and is not controlled when soil compacted with 5% ferric chloride solutions is inundated continuously with alkali solutions. Further, even when the soil is treated with higher amounts of ferric chloride, in the range of 1–5% by weight of soil, the swelling is not controlled. X-ray diffraction studies have shown that the formation of zeolite is not inhibited in the presence of ferric salts.This study clearly shows that ferric chloride treatment can overcome the effects of small concentrations of alkali; it is ineffective to overcome the large and continued exposure of soils with alkali contamination.     

Effect of heavy metal and alkali contamination on the swelling properties of kaolinite

One of the most important factors that determine engineering properties of soils are the type and the amount of clay present in soil. Kaolinite being a very common and non-swelling clay mineral in soil was chosen as the medium, and significance of the change in swelling property of kaolinite due to contaminant-clay interaction was investigated. The amount of change in swelling percentages of the kaolinite due to contamination with 10,000 ppm solutions of Pb(NO₃)₂ and Zn(NO₃)₂ was determined using oedometers. For uncontaminated kaolinite, the amount of swell was determined as 2.2%. For Pb-contaminated and Zn-contaminated kaolinite, these values reached to 5.8 and 5.3%, respectively. Besides heavy metals, kaolinite was also contaminated with 4 N NaOH. The biggest change in the amount of swelling was obtained from NaOH-contaminated kaolinite which is 13.9%. In addition to swelling percentages, swelling pressures were also determined. The swelling pressure of the uncontaminated kaolinite was found as 1.06 N/cm². For Zn and Pb-contaminated kaolinite, this value reached up to 2.0 and 2.6 N/cm². The NaOH-contaminated kaolinite has the greatest swelling pressure which was 230 N/cm².     

Impact of Carpet Waste Fibre Addition on Swelling Properties of Compacted Clays

Municipalities and recycling and environmental authorities are concerned about the growing amount of carpet waste produced by household, commercial and industrial sectors. It is reported that 500,000 tonnes of carpet waste fibre are plunged into landfills annually in the UK. In the United States of America, around 10 million tonnes of textile waste was generated in 2003. In geotechnical engineering, expansive clay soils are categorised as problematic soils due to their swelling behaviour upon increase in the moisture content. The problematic nature of such soils is intensified with the increase in the plasticity index. This paper presents results of a comprehensive investigation into utilisation of carpet waste fibres in order to improve the swelling characteristics of compacted cohesive soils. Therefore, two different clay soils with markedly different plasticity indices (i.e. 17.0 and 31.5 %) were treated with two different types of carpet waste fibre. Waste fibres were added to prepare specimens with fibre content of 1, 3 and 5 % by dry weight of soil. Soil specimens with different dry unit weights and moisture contents were prepared so as to the swelling behaviour of fibre reinforced compacted clays is completely attained under various scenarios. The results indicated that the behaviour of the fibre reinforced soils seems highly dependent on the initial compaction state and secondary on the moisture content. It was found that the swelling pressure drops rapidly as the percentage of fibre increases in samples prepared at the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content. Reducing the dry unit weight, while maintaining constant moisture content or increasing the moisture content at constant dry unit weight was found to reduce the swelling pressure.     

土壤碳循环研究进展

土壤碳是陆地碳库的主要组成部分,全球土壤有机碳总量达1270 Gt。气候变化影响植物生长、植物碎屑分解速率以及土壤—大气碳通量,这对大气CO₂含量有重要影响。土壤有机质模型是研究生态系统尺度土壤碳循环的唯一可用工具,目前已开发出多种。大量研究表明,¹⁴Ｃ测试是研究土壤有机碳组成及驻留时间的重要手段,土壤有机碳由一系列具不同更新时间的组分构成。土壤粒级组成、矿物特征及土体结构等内在因素制约土壤有机碳存量及状态,对于长时间尺度碳的更新具有重要意义。研究不同气候带土壤有机碳储量及动态变化特征,可为预测未来农、林生态系统变化提供理论依据。     

Study on the swelling behaviour of blended clay–sand soils

Soils containing expansive clays undergo swelling that can be both detrimental and beneficial in various applications. In the Arabian Gulf coastal region, natural heterogeneous soils containing clay and sand (tills, shales, and clayey sands) support most of the civil infrastructure systems. Likewise, mixes of clay and sand are used for local earthwork construction such as roads and landfills. A clear understanding of the swelling behaviour of such soils is pivotal at the outset of all construction projects. The main objective of this paper was to understand the evolution of swelling with increasing clay content in local soils. A theoretical framework for clay–sand soils was developed using phase relationships. Laboratory investigations comprised of mineralogical composition and geotechnical index properties of the clay and sand and consistency limits, swelling potential, and morphology of clay–sand mixes. Results indicated that soil consistency of mixes of a local expansive clay and an engineered sand depends on the weighted average of the constituents. Mixes with 10% clay through 40% clay capture the transition from a sand-like behaviour to a clay-like behaviour. Influenced by the initial conditions and soil matrix, the swelling potential of the investigated mixes correlated well with soil plasticity (SP(%) = 0.16 (I _p)^1.188). The parameters sand void ratio and clay–water ratio were found to better explain the behaviour of blended clay–sand soils.     

中国膨胀土粘土矿物组成的定量研究

由于膨胀土的不良工程特性主要受粘土矿物所控制,因此膨胀土的粘土矿物的定性定量研究一直受到高度的重视。但由于粘土矿物的复杂性和工程地质研究者对棍层粘土矿物的认识及研究的缺乏以及技术条件的限制,其膨胀土粘土矿物的研究结果一直不够理想。自从20世纪90年代后期以来作者运用当代粘土矿物组成XRD测试的先进技术,即通过对<2um天然样、乙二醇处理样和550℃加热处理样定向片的XRD联合测定及计算机信息处理技术,对中国不同地区不同类型的19个膨胀土样品进行了定量测试。研究结果表明,中国膨胀土粘土矿物中的80%以上为膨胀性粘土矿物(S、I/S、K/S、C/S),其膨胀性粘土矿物的绝对含量在30%以上。中国膨胀土的粘土矿物的主要类型为中等混层比(40%～60%)的膨胀性混层矿物,而不是伊利石。     

Influence of Cyclic Wetting Drying on Collapse Behaviour of Compacted Residual Soil

The climatic zones where residual soils occur are often characterized by alternate wet and dry seasons. Laboratory studies of earlier workers have established that the alternate wetting and drying process affects the swell-shrink potentials, water content, void ratio and particle cementation of expansive soils. The influence of cyclic wetting and drying on the collapse behaviour of residual soils has not been examined. This paper examines the influence of alternate wetting and drying on the collapse behaviour of compacted residual soil specimens from Bangalore District. Results of such a study are useful in anticipating changes in collapse behaviour of compacted residual soil fills. Experimental results indicated that the cyclic wetting and drying process increased the degree of expansiveness of the residual soils and reduced their collapse tendency. Changes in the swell/collapse behaviour of compacted residual soil specimens from wetting drying effects are attributed to reduction in water content, void ratio and possible growth of cementation bonds.     

表面活性剂改性粉土抗剪强度特性的研究

表面活性剂随着工业、农业、日常生活等各种活动进入到土体及地下水中,不仅会带来环境污染的风险,还会改变土体的结构等从而影响土体的工程性质。为了合理评估表面活性剂污染土体的工程适宜性,采用阴离子表面活性剂十二烷基苯磺酸钠(SDBS)和阳离子表面活性剂三甲基十六烷基溴化铵(CTAB)对粉土进行改性,通过直剪试验研究其对粉土强度特性的影响。结果表明,表面活性剂改性后的粉土内摩擦角减小,随着表面活性剂浓度的增大,内摩擦角减小的幅值越大,当表面活性剂浓度达2%时,粉土内摩擦角减小23.9%;SDBS改性后的粉土黏聚力大大减小,SDBS浓度为2%时,黏聚力减小91.8%,CTAB改性后粉土黏聚力增大,最大增幅达41.8%;改性粉土中加入不同pH的表面活性剂时,内摩擦角变化很小,表明表面活性剂的酸碱程度对土样内摩擦角影响较小,随着表面活性剂溶液pH的增大,改性粉土的黏聚力呈现出下降的趋势,pH改变了土壤的电荷的分配,改变了土粒间的静电作用,从而引起土体黏聚力的变化。     

Elemental and mineralogical changes in soils due to bioturbation along an earthworm invasion chronosequence in Northern Minnesota

Minnesota forested soils have evolved without the presence of earthworms since the last glacial retreat. When exotic earthworms arrive, enhanced soil bioturbation often results in dramatic morphological and chemical changes in soils with negative implications for the forests’ sustainability. However, the impacts of earthworm invasion on geochemical processes in soils are not well understood. This study attempts to quantify the role of earthworm invasion in mineral chemical weathering and nutrient dynamics along an earthworm invasion chronosequence in a sugar maple forest in Northern Minnesota. Depth and rates of soil mixing can be tracked with atmospherically derived short lived radioisotopes ²¹⁰Pb and ¹³⁷Cs. Their radioactivities increase in the lower A horizon at the expense of the peak activities near the soil surface, which indicate that soil mixing rate and its depth reach have been enhanced by earthworms. Enhanced soil mixing by earthworms is consistent with the ways that the vertical profiles of elemental and mineralogical compositions were affected by earthworm invasion. Biologically cycled Ca and P have peak concentrations near the soil surface prior to earthworm invasion. However, these peak abundances significantly declined in the earthworm invaded soils presumably due to enhanced soil mixing. It is clear that enhanced soil mixing due to earthworms also profoundly altered the vertical distribution of most mineral species within A horizons. Though the mechanisms are not clear yet, earthworm invasion appears to have contributed to net losses of clay mineral species and opal from the A horizons. As much as earthworms vertically relocated minerals and elements, they also intensify the contacts between organic matter and cations as shown in the increased amount of Ca and Fe in organically complexed and in exchangeable pools. With future studies on soil mixing rates and elemental leaching, this study will quantitatively and mechanically address the role of earthworms in geochemical evolution of soils and forests’ nutrient dynamics.     

Coupled modelling of hydro‐mechanical behaviour of unsaturated compacted expansive soils

The Barcelona basic model cannot predict the mechanical behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils, whereas the Barcelona expansive model (BExM) can only predict the stress–strain behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils without the water‐retention behaviour being incorporated. Moreover, the micro‐parameters and the coupling function between micro‐structural and macro‐structural strains in the BExM are difficult to determine. Experimental data show that the compression curves for non‐expansive soils under constant suctions are shifted towards higher void ratios with increasing suction, whereas the opposite is true for expansive soils. According to the observed water‐retention behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils, the air‐entry value increases with density, and the relationship between the degree of saturation and void ratio is linear at constant suction. According to the above observation, an elastoplastic constitutive model is developed for predicting the hydraulic and mechanical behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils, based on the existing hydro‐mechanical model for non‐expansive unsaturated soil. The model takes into consideration the effect of degree of saturation on the mechanical behaviour and that of void ratio on the water‐retention behaviour. The concept of equivalent void ratio curve is introduced to distinguish the plastic potential curve from the yield curve. The model predictions are compared with the test results of an unsaturated expansive soil, including swelling tests under constant net stress, isotropic compression tests and triaxial shear tests under constant suction. The comparison indicates that the model offers great potential for quantitatively predicting the hydraulic and mechanical behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Swelling behaviour of expansive soil treated with fly ash–GGBS based binder

In this article, the potential of a binder developed by admixing fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) to stabilise expansive soils is evaluated. Laboratory tests included determination of free swell index, swell potential and swelling pressure tests of the soil/binder mixtures at different mixing ratio. The test results showed decrease in the swelling behaviour of the soil with increase in binder content. The percent swell–time relationship was observed to fit the hyperbolic curves enabling us to predict the ultimate percent swell from few initial test results. Addition of 1% of lime to the binder showed further improvement in reducing swelling. A good linear relationship is established between percent oedometer swell and modified free swell index (MFSI) for soil/binder mixtures without lime but the same has not been observed in the presence of lime. The compressibility characteristics of the soil/binder mixtures reduced nominally with increase in binder content but in the presence of lime, the compressibility reduced significantly. Binder used in this study has been found to be effective and economic to stabilise expansive soils with lesser amount of chemical additives such as lime.     

高钙粉煤灰固化重金属污染土的工程性质试验研究

高钙粉煤灰是燃煤电厂排出的固体废物,其堆放不仅需占用大量土地,而且对周围环境存在严重威胁。通过系统的室内试验,着重研究了高钙粉煤灰固化铅与锌污染土的工程性质,揭示了其作用机制,探讨了利用高钙粉煤灰固化重金属污染土的可行性。试验结果表明,土体受到重金属离子污染后其无侧限抗压强度降低,掺入高钙粉煤灰可提高土体强度,并能抑制重金属离子的滤出;污染物浓度较低时,固化污染土中的Pb2+和Zn2+均能得到有效固化,污染物浓度较高时,Zn2+的固化效果优于Pb2+。干湿循环试验结果表明,高钙粉煤灰固化污染土的强度随干湿循环次数的增加,先增大后减小;固化土体中重金属离子浓度较低时,滤出液中金属离子浓度随干湿循环次数增加而增大;重金属离子浓度较高时,滤出液中金属离子浓度基本保持不变。     

黏土矿物与碱激发地聚物的相互作用机理

土体固化的核心问题之一就是使用适宜的固化剂固化黏土矿物。通过扫描电镜(SEM)、傅里叶红外光谱(FTIR)、X射线衍射(XRD)以及X射线光电子能谱(XPS)等试验方法,研究不同碱含量下碱激发地聚物固化的蒙脱石、伊利石和高岭土的微观结构、物质组成及物理化学反应过程,探究碱激发地聚物与黏土矿物之间的相互作用机理。研究结果表明:黏土矿物经碱激发地聚物固化后,由松散颗粒转变为块状致密结构;随着地聚物中碱含量的增加,Si、Al及Ca元素电子结合能下降;蒙脱石在衍射角为5°左右(001)峰形右移,层间距减小;蒙脱石吸附水含量减小,亲水能力下降,矿物活性被限制。     

钾盐和磷酸盐对固化土早期强度的影响研究

利用土壤板结原理,通过对硫铝酸盐水泥固化土无侧限抗压强度试验和水稳定性试验,探讨钾盐、磷酸盐对其早期强度的影响规律;通过X射线衍射（XRD）对固化土的物相成分进行了分析,探讨钾盐、磷酸盐影响固化土强度的变化内在机制。试验结果表明,钾盐、磷酸盐对固化土强度提高的阈值为0.6%,当盐掺入量低于该阈值时,固化土强度会随着盐掺量的增加而提高,当盐掺入量超过该阈值时,固化土强度会逐渐降低。盐掺入量不超过2%时,掺盐固化土水稳定性与未掺盐固化土差不多,7 d固化土软化系数基本保持在70%以上,但掺入K2SO4的固化土水稳定性较差,软化系数在60%左右。生成高强难溶具有膨胀性的矿物晶体是掺盐固化土早期强度提高的主要原因,但盐掺入量过高,固化土中矿物晶体过多膨胀作用,破坏固化土结构,而使固化土早期强度降低。     

Contribution of lipids to the nonlinear sorption of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to soil organic matter

The sorption isotherms of benzene, naphthalene, fluorene and phenanthrene for a suite of whole and lipid-extracted soils are presented. The sorption of benzene to two different peats displays linear characteristics which are consistent with the partitioning model of sorption. The sorption of the PAHs to three different mineral soils show marked nonlinear character. The nonlinear sorptive character of the soil organic matter can be described by site specific sorption occurring within the soil organic matrix. Removal of the lipids via Soxhlet extraction increases the nonlinear character of the sorption isotherms as well as doubles the sorptive capacity of the mineral soils for the PAHs studied. This indicates that the lipids naturally present in the soil strongly compete for hydrophobic sorption sites present in the soil organic matter matrix.     

膨胀土的电导率与膨胀性的关系研究

膨胀土是一种高塑性、强亲水的黏性土。由于黏土矿物含量较高,膨胀土颗粒的交换阳离子含量也较高,总比表面积较大,在电导率测试指标上反映是膨胀土的导电性随膨胀性的增大而增强。选取强、中、弱3种不同膨胀等级的代表性试样,采用无电极电阻率测定仪和便携式电导率探头,测试了膨胀土泥浆和孔隙水溶液电导率测试,采用原子吸收光谱仪检测了膨胀土孔隙水溶液中的离子种类、含量等。研究表明,膨胀土孔隙水溶液的导电性与膨胀土泥浆的导电性均随膨胀性增大而增大,膨胀土的电导率和自由膨胀率具有良好的线性关系,工程中可以利用这一原理进行膨胀土的快速判别。     

引江济淮试验工程膨胀土电导率特征实验研究

南水北调中线工程实践研究表明,膨胀土的电导率与自由膨胀率呈现线性关系。引江济淮试验工程为开发膨胀土判别快速方法以及提出针对江淮地区土质的电导率法判别适用标准,开展膨胀土电导率特征实验研究。工程现场取多组土样进行基本性质、膨胀性和不同含水率下的电导率实验,寻求该地区膨胀土电导率与含水率和自由膨胀率的关系。研究表明,电导率随土体含水率增加呈现先增加后减小的变化趋势,土体处于液限含水率附近状态下,具有最强的导电性,电导率具有峰值特征。相同含水率条件下,土体的膨胀性越强电导率越大;电导率和自由膨胀率总体上线性相关,试样在液限含水率附近时相关性最大;线性经验模型的精度由相关性水平控制,本试验提出的江淮地区弱膨胀土电导率经验模型的精度控制标准为R2=0.78,可以达到自由膨胀率实测值的精度水平,具有实用价值。     

Geotechnical properties of stabilised Indian red earth

Locally available soils amended with sufficient bentonite are generally used for construction of liners for water and waste retention facilities. The amount of bentonite required to keep the hydraulic conductivity low varies with the nature of the local soil. Many studies have shown that bentonite content higher than 20% by weight is not usually required. This is also the case with Indian red earth containing predominantly quartz and kaolinite minerals. Incorporating bentonite, though keeps the hydraulic conductivity of soil low, increases the swelling and shrinkage potential; increases the loss of strength due to reduction in cohesion. This paper aims to improve the geotechnical properties of red earth and bentonite mixture with lime or cement. The studies reveal that the geotechnical properties of red earth with 20% by weight bentonite stabilised with 1% by weight of lime or cement are greatly enhanced, particularly after curing for 28 days. it has been shown that the early gain in strength is better with cement whereas its long-term strength gain is better with lime.