天气现象自动化观测系统设计

为了实现天气现象自动化观测,针对地面观测规范中34种天气现象,设计了基于图像、光学散射和常规地面气象观测多种技术的天气现象自动化观测系统。它由天气现象传感器和数字处理器两部分组成,天气现象传感器完成天气现象的图像和光学特性采集,数字处理器将模拟图像数字化,对数字图像和光学特性数据进行处理和管理,结合自动站的资料进行天气现象自动化识别。图像采集和识别技术在凝结天气现象自动识别试验中取得初步成效。     

雨滴谱降水现象仪工作原理及常规维护要点

降水天气现象自动化观测是实现地面自动化观测的重要内容之一,2017年青海省国家级气象台站在中国局山洪项目支持下,陆续建设完成了雨滴谱降水现象仪,实现了降水类天气现象的全天候观测,结束了降水类天气现象由人工观测的历史,彻底摆脱了人工观测的主观性,提高降水现象观测资料的完整性和实时性。依据省局业务管理部门的要求,2017年10月1日雨滴谱降水现象仪正式开始并行观测。本文通过对雨滴谱降水现象仪工作原理的分析,并结合治多国家一般气象站降水类天气现象的特征,提出了观测数据和观测仪器设备的常规维护要点,由于该设备刚刚投入并行观测,希望给同行提供帮助。     

结露时间与浅层土壤湿度相关特征

天气现象自动化观测系统,通过图像自动化识别技术,能自动观测地表结露天气现象,并能记录结露发生的时间。北京市平谷气象站安装了土壤湿度仪和天气现象自动化观测系统,通过统计分析平谷气象站2011年4—9月天气现象自动化观测系统得到的结露时间资料与浅层土壤湿度资料,得到结露时间与土壤湿度具有一定的相关关系,即0~10cm层土壤湿度越大结露时间越早。相反,0~10cm土壤湿度越小,结露时间越晚,当0~10cm土壤湿度小于一定值后就不发生结露现象。为了进一步验证结露时间与土壤湿度具有一定的相关关系,分析了北京市怀柔、门头沟、朝阳、大兴和延庆等站结露时间与降水后日数的关系。     

天气现象自动化观测现状调研

科技发展使越来越多的新技术和新方法应用于自动气象观测,但目前我国天气现象观测仍然采用人工目测,本文调研分析国内外天气现象自动化观测现状,并根据34种天气现象的特征,分别对5类天气现象的自动化识别方法进行研究,结果表明大部分天气现象的自动识别在技术上是可行的。还探索了一种进行天气现象代码自动识别的方法,通过综合利用各种新型技术,在100个天气现象代码中,未来可预见能实现自动编码的代码有63个。     

基于自动观测的天气现象电码自动编制实现流程

实现地面气象要素自动观测是近年来我国气象观测领域的发展趋势,观测自动化给地面观测业务和观测数据的应用推广带来较大改变。本文研究了基于自动观测的天气现象代码表WMO4680,分析得出WMO4680简化了视程障碍和降水阵性的代码分类,比WMO4677编码更适合自动观测设备的特点。结合我国业务天气现象电码编制原则,设计实现了现在天气现象电码和过去天气现象电码的自动编制。根据我国目前可自动化观测的要素数目,经过流程设计和当前最新业务改革内容,可以实现46个天气电码的自动编报。     

降水现象仪与人工观测资料对比分析

选取4个设置于不同探测环境下的国家级气象站2017年9月—2018年6月降水天气现象仪和人工观测降水天气现象资料进行对比分析,统计了降水现象仪资料的完整性、准确性和一致性,得出如下结论:雨的捕获率较高,空报率、错报率、漏报率均较低,自动观测记录准确性最好;毛毛雨空报率最高,冰雹空报率次之,自动观测记录准确性较差;雪和雨夹雪准确性比较好,但是由于软件的bug,使空报率较高。自动观测天气现象的开始时间多晚于人工观测,结束时间多早于人工观测,致使自动观测记录时间偏短。     

露、霜、结冰天气现象综合判别

通过自动气象站的连续观测资料,结合人工观测的天气现象,根据露、霜、结冰的成因筛选出符合条件的基本指标作为综合判据。选取气温、相对湿度、地面温度、草面温度和近地面温度作为主要因子,综合考虑降水和天气状况对这些天气现象形成的影响。采用两个气象观测站的分钟观测资料以及人工观测天气现象记录进行统计分析。经过初选因子和精选指标,利用多要素的组合方法,提炼出自然状态下出现露、霜、结冰现象的综合判别指标,获得了较好效果,拟合率在80%以上。为进一步认识这些天气现象的发生和变化规律提供参考,也能为天气现象观测自动化提供依据。     

HY-WP1A天气现象视频智能观测仪的业务运行和日常维护

天气现象视频智能观测仪投入业务试运行以来,较好的解决了云、地面凝结现象、雪等天气现象(气象要素)的自动化观测。但是该仪器的结构复杂、参数设置较多、维护要求较高,需要业务人员具有较强的理论知识和动手能力。本文通过从仪器结构、工作原理、安装要求、业务运行等方面对该仪器进行了介绍,让业务人员更加了解天气现象视频智能观测仪的使用,对相关故障排查提供技术支撑。     

雨滴谱降水现象仪对比观测试验技术应用分析

降水天气现象自动化观测是实现地面自动化观测的重要内容之一,为了克服人工观测的主观性,提高降水现象观测资料的完整性和实时性,中国气象局气象探测中心遴选了6家厂家18台雨滴谱降水现象仪分别在北京站和长沙站进行为期3个月的降水天气现象仪对比试验。主要从试验的选址、原理、标准、方法及参试设备的试验数据进行分析,结果表明:参试设备对雨强大于0.1mm/h的平均捕获率不低于97%,对雨强小于0.1mm/h的平均捕获率不低于84%;各参试设备吻合率随着降水强度的逐渐增大,经历了一个先升后降的过程;参试设备对冰雹现象观测结果较为理想,所有参试设备对冰雹现象平均错报率均低于0.5%,而对毛毛雨和未知现象的观测仍需改进;参试设备的漏报率与雨强大小呈负相关,雨强越小,漏报率越高。     

利用卫星气象信息提高地面测站测报质量

在测报接班前或观测前，调看地面图、高空图和红外线云图。借助这些卫星气象资料，初步掌握值班期间控制或影响测站的天气系统、云系等，对可能出现的天气现象进行技术上的分析和编报方面的预习。如夏季从地面图和700hPa高空图看出测站受东北冷涡影响，并从云图上发现低涡内有中尺度云团发展，根据天气学和实际测报经验，低涡天气在本站出现时，一般会产生阵雨、雷暴天气，有时会出现短时大风、飑线、冰雹等强对流天气。对于这样复杂天气的观测编报，如果观测前没有对天气系统和云系的认识和了解，观测时就会感到天气现象出现的突然，有可能顾此失彼，产生误测、误编电码等人为错误。如果在天气现象出现以前，有了对天气系统中可能产生的天气现象的预见，就能在复杂天气出现以前复习有关天气现象观测标准，进行天气电码选择，云的正确编报，“现在天气”和“过去天气”的配合编报。当某些观测项目达到“规范”标准时，根据“天气电码”规定编重要天气报、航危报等。针对可能临时出现的增加项目，要把量器准备好。这样，使测报在任何复杂天气情况下观测，做到心中有数，稳中有序，做到不误测、不漏测项目、不误编天气电码，提高了地面气象站的测报质量。     

1,800 Years of abrupt climate change, severe fire, and accelerated erosion, Sierra Nevada, California, USA

This paper provides both a detailed history of environmental change in the Sierra Nevada over the past 1,800 years and evidence for climate teleconnections between the Sierra Nevada and Greenland during the late Holocene. A review of Greenland ice core data suggests that the magnitudes of abrupt changes in temperature and precipitation increased beginning c. 3,700 and 3,000 years ago, respectively. Precipitation increased abruptly 1,300 years ago. Comparing paleotemperature data from Cirque Peak, CA with paleoprecipitation data from Pyramid Lake, NV suggests that hot temperatures occurred at the beginnings of most severe droughts in the Sierra Nevada over the past 1,800 years. Severe fires and erosion also occurred at Coburn Lake, CA at the beginning of all severe droughts in the Sierra Nevada over the past 1,800 years. This suggests that abrupt climate change during the late Holocene caused vegetation and mountain slopes in some areas to be out of equilibrium with abruptly changed climates. Finally, the ending of drought conditions in Greenland coincided with the beginning of drought conditions in the Sierra Nevada over the past 1,800 years, perhaps as a result of the rapidly changed locations of the Earth??s major precipitation belts during abrupt climate change events.     

The microstructure of selected, small, isolated, cumulus clouds near Red Deer, Alberta

Physical experiments designed to explore the potential of rain augmentation through airborne glaciogenic seeding on small, isolated non-precipitating cumuliform clouds near Red Deer, Alberta were carried out during the period 1982–1985. The microstructure of 90 cumulus congestus clouds have been documented through repeated in-situ sampling using a cloud physics instrumented aircraft platform. Observations from the inspection passes of 57 clouds seeded with either dry ice pellets or silver iodide pyrotechnics, and all the passes of 33 natural clouds are presented.Measurements of the cloud droplet concentration indicate that Alberta cumulus clouds are typically continental in nature, with an average droplet concentration of 535 cm⁻³ and an average droplet diameter of 10.6 μm. Alberta clouds have average liquid water contents of 0.57 g m⁻³, with a peak 1-sec value of 3.17 g m⁻³. The 1-km average liquid water contents are 0.83 g m⁻³, with a peak value of 2.81 g m⁻³. Cloud lifetimes vary between 11 and 20 minutes. Concentrations of naturally occurring ice crystals are found to be low. The average maximum 1-km ice concentration was 31⁻¹, and the peak 1-km concentration was 73.11⁻¹ in the natural cloud dataset. Evidence of precipitation-sized particles was detected in 21% (7 of 33) of the clouds, and precipitation below cloud base was detected in 6% (2 of 33) of the clouds.A comparison of the Alberta cloud characteristics to the cumulus clouds from different locations showed that there are some distinct differences between Alberta clouds and the clouds from the other regions.     

Performance of CMORPH,TMPA, and PERSIANN rainfall datasets over plain,mountainous, and glacial regions of Pakistan

The present study aims at the assessment of six satellite rainfall estimates (SREs) in Pakistan. For each assessed products, both real-time (RT) and post adjusted (Adj) versions are considered to highlight their potential benefits in the rainfall estimation at annual, monthly, and daily temporal scales. Three geomorphological climatic zones, i.e., plain, mountainous, and glacial are taken under considerations for the determination of relative potentials of these SREs over Pakistan at global and regional scales. All SREs, in general, have well captured the annual north-south rainfall decreasing patterns and rainfall amounts over the typical arid regions of the country. Regarding the zonal approach, the performance of all SREs has remained good over mountainous region comparative to arid regions. This poor performance in accurate rainfall estimation of all the six SREs over arid regions has made their use questionable in these regions. Over glacier region, all SREs have highly overestimated the rainfall. One possible cause of this overestimation may be due to the low surface temperature and radiation absorption over snow and ice cover, resulting in their misidentification with rainy clouds as daily false alarm ratio has increased from mountainous to glacial regions. Among RT products, CMORPH-RT is the most biased product. The Bias was almost removed on CMORPH-Adj thanks to the gauge adjustment. On a general way, all Adj versions outperformed their respective RT versions at all considered temporal scales and have confirmed the positive effects of gauge adjustment. CMORPH-Adj and TMPA-Adj have shown the best agreement with in situ data in terms of Bias, RMSE, and CC over the entire study area.     

BDA方案对台风背景高温天气预报的改进

广州地Ⅸ的高温天气主要是受副热带高压和台风外围下沉气流的影响所致.文中采用BDA(Bogus Data Assimila-tion)方法,探讨BDA方案对广州地区台风背景条件下高温预报的改进能力.选取2005年7月中旬广州地区出现的高温天气进行研究.这是比较典型的受副热带高压和台风(海棠)共同影响造成高温的天气过程.分析有无采用BDA方案的模式初始场.结果表明:采用BDA方案同化Bogus模型可以调整台风中心位置和强度,使所得到的初始场中心位置与观测更为接近,台风强度(气压梯度力、风速)比末用Bogus的情况强,与观测值更为接近.数值模拟的结果表明,采用了BDA方案的敏感试验可以更好地预撤台风路径和台风中心强度变化,从而更好地预报高温天气,对高温区分布、日平均温度大小等的预报都有改进.文中对引起这种预报差异的原因进行了讨论,并探讨高温预报改进的可能机制.大气下沉运动的增强是高温预报改进的主要原因.敏感试验由于广州中低层大气的水汽减少,大气的下沉增强,致使天空的云量减少,对太阳短波辐射的阻挡减小,从而地面吸收热量增多,温度升高,输送给大气的感热增加,大气气温升高.采用BDA方案可以改进模式在台风"海棠"过程对广州高温的预报.     

Roughness length of sea,sand, and snow

Profiles of wind speed in driving sand and snow show roughness length increasing as the square of the friction velocity, in accordance with Charnock's relation for the roughness length of the sea.     

Distribution,speciation, and budget of atmospheric mercury

Total gaseous mercury (TGM) concentrations over the Atlantic Ocean and over Central Europe were measured repeatedly in the years 1978–1981. The latitudinal TGM distribution showed a pronounced and reproducible interhemispherical difference with higher TGM concentrations in the Northern Hemisphere. TGM was found to be vertically well mixed within the troposphere. The TGM concentration seems to increase with time at a rate of 10±8%/yr in the Northern and 8±3%/yr in the Southern Hemisphere. Measurements of mercury speciation showed that elemental mercury is the main TGM component contributing more than 92% and 83% of TGM in marine and continental air, respectively. The tropospheric mercury burden was calculated to be 6×10⁹g. The interhemispheric distribution and temporal and spatial variability of TGM imply a tropospheric residence time of TGM of about 1 yr. Sink strengths calculated independently from the measured mercury concentration on particles and in rainwater are consistent with the above figures.     

On the Heat Islands of Washington,DC, and New York City,NY

Data collected in 2007 from a dense commercial network (operated by AWS Convergence Technologies, Inc.) of roof-mounted temperature sensors are used to explore the heat island characteristics of Washington, DC, and New York City, NY. Considerable spatial detail is revealed, but aggregating data in annuli centered on assumed central locations in the business districts of the two cities reveals that the heat islands extend out to more than 30 km, with the New York City island being somewhat larger. The results from both arrays reveal the influence of the surroundings, with large scatter of daytime results being characteristic of sites with the greatest local surface inhomogeneity. Nighttime data are more ordered, and suggest that surface air temperatures decrease by about 0.02°C km⁻¹ for the Washington case, and 0.04°C km⁻¹ for New York, with the winter behaviour being more pronounced than for other seasons. Scatter of the data in the daytime is a common feature for all seasons, but mainly for those with the strongest insolation. Comparison between working day and weekend temperatures provides convincing verification that the air responds quite slowly to changes in surface (radiometric) temperatures, with distance constants of the order of many tens of km. There appears to be a small wind speed effect, which is evident in the nighttime data but is largely obscured by scatter for the daytime.