Sources of nutrient pollution to coastal waters in the United States: Implications for achieving coastal water quality goals

Some 60% of coastal rivers and bays in the U.S. have been moderately to severely degraded by nutrient pollution. Both nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) contribute to the problem, although for most coastal systems N additions cause more damage. Globally, human activity has increased the flux of N and P from land to the oceans by 2-fold and 3-fold, respectively. For N, much of this increase has occurred over the past 40 years, with the increase varying by region. Human activity has increased the flux of N in the Mississippi River basin by 4-fold, in the rivers of the northeastern U.S. by 8-fold, and in the rivers draining to the North Sea by more than 10-fold. The sources of nutrients to the coast vary. For some estuaries, sewage treatment plants are the largest single input; for most systems nonpoint sources of nutrients are now of relatively greater importance, both because of improved point source treatment and control (particularly for P) and because of increases in the total magnitude of nonpoint sources (particularly for N) over the past three decades. For P, agricultural activities dominate nonpoint source fluxes. Agriculture is also the major source of N in many systems, including the flux of N down the Mississippi River, which has contributed to the large hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico. For both P and N, agriculture contributes to nonpoint source pollution both through losses at the field scale, as soils erode away and fertilizer is leached to surface and ground waters, and from losses from animal feedlot operations. In the U.S. N from animal wastes that leaks directly to surface waters or is volatilized to the atmosphere as ammonia may be the single largest source of N that moves from agricultural operations into coastal waters. In some regions, including the northeastern U.S., atmospheric deposition of oxidized N from fossil-fuel combustion is the major flux from nonpoint sources. This atmospheric component of the N flux into estuaries has often been underestimated, particularly with respect to deposition onto the terrestrial landscape with subsequent export downstream. Because the relative importance of these nutrient sources varies among regions and sites, so too must appropriate and effective mitigation strategies. The regional nature and variability of nutrient sources require that nutrient management efforts address large geographic areas.     

Coccolithophores from the central Arabian Sea: Sediment trap results

Sediment trap samples collected from a depth of 1018 m in the Central Arabian Sea Trap (CAST) at 14°28.2′N, 64°35.8′E were analyzed for temporal variation of coccolithophore fluxes from October 1993 to August 1994. Out of the twenty species of coccolithophores encountered,Gephyrocapsa oceanica, Emiliania huxleyi, Umbilicosphaera sibogae andUmbellosphaera irregularis were the most abundant. The total coccolithophore fluxes ranged from 28.5 × 10⁶m^-2d^-1 to 50.3 × 10⁶m^-2d^-1 showing seasonality with higher fluxes during the northeast (NE) monsoon and lower fluxes during the spring intermonsoon. The higher fluxes were attributed to the enhancement of primary production in the central Arabian Sea due to southward extent of nutrients from the northeast Arabian Sea by the prevailing surface currents. Similarly, the occurrences of relatively lower coccolithophore fluxes during the spring intermonsoon and southwest (SW) monsoon were attributed to the low nutrients in the warm, shallow surface mixed layer and downwelling to the south of Findlater Jet respectively in the central Arabian Sea. Some of the coccolithophore species such asE. huxleyi, G. oceanica, Calcidiscus leptoporus andUmbellosphaera tenuis showed signs of dissolution.     

依据Pulleniatina的旋向变化划定更新统下界─-以台湾二仁溪剖面为例

在传统上,浮游有孔虫Ｇｌｏｂｏｒｏｔａｌｉａｔｒｕｎｃａｔｕｌｉｎｏｉｄｅｓ的初现面一直被用来作为划定海相地层更新统下界的可靠依据。然而,此一初现面(２．０ＭａＢ．Ｐ．)所界定的更新统下界与超微化石Ｇａｐｈｙｒｏｃｏｐｓａｏｃｅａｎｉｃａｓ．ｌ．初现面(１．６７～１．７ＭａＢ．Ｐ．)所界定的并不一致。这一现象对大陆边缘的沉积地层尤为显著。其主要原因是,大陆边缘的高沉积速率会导致两个基面有很的层位间距。本研究证明台湾西南部二仁溪剖面之浮游有孔虫Ｐｕｌｌｅｎｉａｔｉｎａ最后一次的旋向变化(由左至右),几乎与超微化石Ｇ．ｏｃｅａｎｉｃａｓ．ｌ．的初现面同一时间。因此,就浮游有孔虫生物地层的观点看,此一族向变化是辨识更新统下界的一个非常有用的基面。     

Impacts of saline water irrigation and shrimp pond discharges on the surrounding waters of a coastal district in the Mekong delta of Vietnam

This study discusses impacts of saline water irrigation and shrimp pond discharges on the surrounding waters in the coastal Cai Nuoc district, Mekong delta of Vietnam where the landscape was re-shaped by shrimp aquaculture since 2000. Sampling took place at the end of the wet season of 2009 in the district (as aquaculture sites) and a nearby freshwater-dominated reference site. The aquaculture sites showed significantly higher salinities and organic loadings (biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand) but lower dissolved nutrients (NO₃–N, NO₂–N, and PO₄–P), total iron, and phytoplankton diversity compared to the reference site. Irrigation of saline waters has exacerbated salinization, leading to significant biological changes in the surrounding waters. Impacts of shrimp pond discharges on the surrounding waters were not very dramatic in terms of organic loadings and nutrients. The increase in organic loadings in the surrounding waters was mostly due to contribution from other pollution sources, such as domestic/industrial discharges and runoff. Enhanced salinization and changes in nutrients resulted in a decline in species richness and diversity, and a change in the evenness of the phytoplankton community. Besides, the composition of zooplankton and zoobenthos were also restructured. The mild impacts of shrimp pond discharges on the surrounding waters were primarily due to the limited inputs for shrimp aquaculture in this area.     

Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: Nutrient sources,composition, and consequences

Although algal blooms, including those considered toxic or harmful, can be natural phenomena, the nature of the global problem of harmful algal blooms (HABs) has expanded both in extent and its public perception over the last several decades. Of concern, especially for resource managers, is the potential relationship between HABs and the accelerated eutrophication of coastal waters from human activities. We address current insights into the relationships between HABs and eutrophication, focusing on sources of nutrients, known effects of nutrient loading and reduction, new understanding of pathways of nutrient acquisition among HAB species, and relationships between nutrients and toxic algae. Through specific, regional, and global examples of these various relationships, we offer both an assessment of the state of understanding, and the uncertainties that require future research efforts. The sources of nutrients potentially stimulating algal blooms include sewage, atmospheric deposition, groundwater flow, as well as agricultural and aquaculture runoff and discharge. On a global basis, strong correlations have been demonstrated between total phosphorus inputs and phytoplankton production in freshwaters, and between total nitrogen input and phytoplankton production in estuarine and marine waters. There are also numerous examples in geographic regions ranging from the largest and second largest U.S. mainland estuaries (Chesapeake Bay and the Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine System), to the Inland Sea of Japan, the Black Sea, and Chinese coastal waters, where increases in nutrient loading have been linked with the development of large biomass blooms, leading to anoxia and even toxic or harmful impacts on fisheries resources, ecosystems, and human health or recreation. Many of these regions have witnessed reductions in phytoplankton biomass (as chlorophylla) or HAB incidence when nutrient controls were put in place. Shifts in species composition have often been attributed to changes in nutrient supply ratios, primarily N∶P or N∶Si. Recently this concept has been extended to include organic forms of nutrients, and an elevation in the ratio of dissolved organic carbon to dissolved organic nitrogen (DOC∶DON) has been observed during several recent blooms. The physiological strategies by which different groups of species acquire their nutrients have become better understood, and alternate modes of nutrition such as heterotrophy and mixotrophy are now recognized as common among HAB species. Despite our increased understanding of the pathways by which nutrients are delivered to ecosystems and the pathways by which they are assimilated differentially by different groups of species, the relationships between nutrient delivery and the development of blooms and their potential toxicity or harmfulness remain poorly understood. Many factors such as algal species presence/abundance, degree of flushing or water exchange, weather conditions, and presence and abundance of grazers contribute to the success of a given species at a given point in time. Similar nutrient loads do not have the same impact in different environments or in the same environment at different points in time. Eutrophication is one of several mechanisms by which harmful algae appear to be increasing in extent and duration in many locations. Although important, it is not the only explanation for blooms or toxic outbreaks. Nutrient enrichment has been strongly linked to stimulation of some harmful species, but for others it has not been an apparent contributing factor. The overall effect of nutrient over-enrichment on harmful algal species is clearly species specific.     

Deglacial seasonal and sub‐seasonal diatom record from Palmer Deep,Antarctica

The Antarctic Peninsula is one of the most sensitive regions of Antarctica to climate change. Here, ecological and cryospheric systems respond rapidly to climate fluctuations. A 4.4 m thick laminated diatom ooze deposited during the last deglaciation is examined from a marine sediment core (ODP Site 1098) recovered from Basin I, Palmer Deep, western Antarctic Peninsula. This deglacial laminated interval was deposited directly over a glaciomarine diamict, hence during a globally recognised period of rapid climate change. The ultra‐high‐resolution deglacial record is analysed using SEM backscattered electron imagery and secondary electron imagery. Laminated to thinly bedded orange‐brown diatom ooze (near monogeneric Hyalochaete Chaetoceros spp. resting spores) alternates with blue‐grey terrigenous sediments (open water diatom species). These discrete laminae are interpreted as austral spring and summer signals respectively, with negligible winter deposition. Sub‐seasonal sub‐laminae are observed repeatedly through the summer laminae, suggesting variations in shelf waters throughout the summer. Tidal cycles, high storm intensities and/or intrusion of Circumpolar Deep Water onto the continental shelf introduced conditions which enhanced specific species productivity through the season. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen: Implications for nutrient over-enrichment of coastal waters

Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen (AD-N) is a significant source of nitrogen enrichment to nitrogen (N)-limited estuarine and coastal waters downwind of anthropogenic emissions. Along the eastern U.S. coast and eastern Gulf of Mexico, AD-N currently accounts for 10% to over 40% of new N loading to estuaries. Extension of the regional acid deposition model (RADM) to coastal shelf waters indicates that 11, 5.6, and 5.6 kg N ha⁻¹ may be deposited on the continental shelf areas of the northeastern U.S. coast, southeast U.S. coast, and eastern Gulf of Mexico, respectively. AD-N approximates or exceeds riverine N inputs in many coastal regions. From a spatial perspective, AD-N is a unique source of N enrichment to estuarine and coastal waters because, for a receiving water body, the airshed may exceed the watershed by 10–20 fold. AD-N may originate far outside of the currently managed watersheds. AD-N may increase in importance as a new N source by affecting waters downstream of the oligohaline and mesohaline estuarine nutrient filters where large amounts of terrestrially-supplied N are assimilated and denitrified. Regionally and globally, N deposition associated with urbanization (NO_x, peroxyacetyl nitrate, or PAN) and agricultural expansion (NH₄ ⁺ and possibly organic N) has increased in coastal airsheds. Recent growth and intensification of animal (poultry, swine, cattle) operations in the midwest and mid-Atlantic regions have led to increasing amounts of NH₄ ⁺ emission and deposition, according to a three decadal analysis of the National Acid Deposition Program network. In western Europe, where livestock operations have dominated agricultural production for the better part of this century, NH₄ ⁺ is the most abundant form of AD-N. AD-N deposition in the U.S. is still dominated by oxides of N (NO_x) emitted from fossil fuel combustion; annual NH₄ ⁺ deposition is increasing, and in some regions is approaching total NO₃ ⁻ deposition. In receiving estuarine and coastal waters, phytoplankton community structural and functional changes, associated water quality, and trophic and biogeochemical alterations (i.e, algal blooms, hypoxia, food web, and fisheries habitat disruption) are frequent consequences of N-driven eutrophication. Increases in and changing proportions of various new N sources regulate phytoplankton competitive interactions, dominance, and successional patterns. These quantitative and qualitative aspects of AD-N and other atmospheric nutrient sources (e.g., iron) may promote biotic changes now apparent in estuarine and coastal waters, including the proliferation of harmful algal blooms, with cascading impacts on water quality and fisheries.     

Radiolarians and stratigraphy of Cenomanian-Coniacian deposits in the Crimean and West Sakhalin Mountains, Pt. 2: Comparative analysis

The work is aimed at summarizing data on Late Cretaceous radiolarians from the Crimean and West Sakhalin mountains. The Cenomanian-lower Coniacian stratigraphic interval of the Crimean Mountains yields 215 radiolarian species, and 80 concurrent species are known from the West Sakhalin Maintains. According to results of comparative analysis, there are 62 species in common from two regions, i.e., most of the species occurring in the West Sakhalin Mountains are also known from southerly regions, which is a good premise for correlation.     

Review: Occurrence of the pathogenic amoeba <Emphasis Type="Italic">Naegleria fowleri</Emphasis> in groundwater

Naegleria fowleri is a thermophilic free-living amoeba found worldwide in soils and warm freshwater. It is the causative agent of primary amebic meningoencephalitis, a nearly always fatal disease afflicting mainly children and young adults. Humans are exposed to the organism via swimming, bathing, or other recreational activity during which water is forcefully inhaled into the upper nasal passages. Although many studies have looked at the occurrence of N. fowleri in surface waters, limited information is available regarding its occurrence in groundwater and geothermally heated natural waters such as hot springs. This paper reviews the current literature related to the occurrence of N. fowleri in these waters and the methods employed for its detection. Case reports of potential groundwater exposures are also included. Despite increased interest in N. fowleri in recent years due to well-publicized cases linked to drinking water, many questions still remain unanswered. For instance, why the organism persists in some water sources and not in others is not well understood. The role of biofilms in groundwater wells and plumbing in individual buildings, and the potential for warming due to climate change to expand the occurrence of the organism into new regions, are still unclear. Additional research is needed to address these questions in order to better understand the ecology of N. fowleri and the conditions that result in greater risks to bathers.     

Early postglacial environmental conditions in the northeastern Laptev Sea region

A comparison of the first results of a comprehensive micropaleontological analysis (pollen, spores, organic-walled microfossils, diatoms, ostracods) and radiocarbon ages (AMS¹⁴C) from sediment core recovered in the northeastern outer shelf of the Laptev Sea (51 m water depth) revealed a temporal coincidence between terrestrial and marine environmental changes that occurred between 11.2–10.3 cal ka. This interval provided evidence for a landscape transition from grass tundra to shrub tundra and the development of a freshwater estuarine basin with the strong influence of riverine discharge and a minor advection of North Atlantic waters. The establishment of a warmer and wetter climate promoted the expansion of shrub tundra habitats. The interval of 9.5–7.5 cal ka recorded a transition from a shrub tundra environment to forest-tundra vegetation. This interval also revealed a series of short-term temperature fluctuations, when summer temperatures were 3–4°C higher than today. The active advection of North Atlantic waters and the increase in salinity were also recorded by this interval.     

Contribution of estuaries to commercial fisheries in temperate Western Australia and the concept of estuarine dependence

Fisheries catch statistics for temperate Western Australia are considered in conjunction with life cycle data to elucidate the importance of estuaries to the commercial and recreational fisheries in this region. The data are used to discuss whether the term estuarine-dependent is strictly applicable to all species of finfish found in abundance in estuaries. Between 1976 and 1984, 96 species of finfish, 7 species of crustaceans and 12 species of mollusks contributed to the large commercial fishery in estuaries, protected coastal areas and open marine waters of temperate Western Australia. The mean annual weight and monetary value (in 1984 terms) of this fishery was 21,355 t and $A151.3×10⁶. The contribution of the weight (4,340 t) and value ($A3.7×10⁶) of the estuarine-dependent species to the total fishery was 20.3 and 2.4%, respectively. Estuarine-dependent marine species frequently use protected inshore waters in temperate Western Australia, and have to do so when they occur in subtropical regions in Western Australia where there are no permanent estuaries. Even the semi-anadromous Perth herring and some species which are estuarinesensu stricto in south-western Australia complete their life cycle within the marine waters of this latter more northern region. Since virtually none of the commercially important marine species in temperate Western Australia can be considered to be entirely dependent on estuaries, and a similar conclusion is valid for many species of marine teleosts found in abundance in estuaries in temperate waters elsewhere in the world, these marine species would be best regarded as estuarine opportunists rather than estuarine dependents.     

Organic films on particulate matter in surface waters off eastern Asia

SEM examination of suspended material collected by filtration from samples of surface waters over continental shelves and deeper areas off eastern Asia reveals the presence of irregular organic films that are longer, cover more filter area, and have more tapered edges in samples from nearshore than offshore regions. Associated diatoms include species diagnostic of coastal environments. Films and coastal diatoms are most abundant in waters above continental shelves where river discharges cause the waters to be more dilute than 33.5‰ salinity. Farther from shore, both films and skeletal elements are broken and partly dissolved. Skeletal elements, faecal matter, and other debris are trapped or adhere to the films, which therefore provide a concentrated food source for small organisms beyond nearshore regions of high primary productivity. The films contribute an unknown percentage of the total organic matter that reaches bottom sediments.     

Interstitial water – sediment geochemistry of N, P and Fe and its response to overlying waters of tropical estuaries: a case from the southwest coast of India

 The concentrations of N, P and Fe in surface sediments and interstitial and overlying (bottom and surface) waters of the Ashtamudi estuary located in the southwest coast of India are reported along with the various chemical species of N (NO₂–N, NO₃–N, NH₃–N and total N) and P (organic P, inorganic P and total P) in interstitial and overlying waters and discussed in terms of the physico-chemical environment of the system. The interstitial water exhibits higher salinity values compared to bottom and surface waters, indicating the coupled effects of salt-wedge phenomena and gravitational convection of more saline-denser marine water downward through surface sediments. N, P and Fe as well as their chemical forms are enriched in the interstitial water compared to bottom and surface waters. However, the dissolved oxygen (DO) shows an opposite trend. The marked enrichment of NH₃–N in the interstitial water and its marginal presence in bottom and surface waters, together with the substantial decrease in the DO concentrations of bottom water and consequent increase in the concentrations of NO₂–N and NO₃–N in interstitial and bottom waters, points to the nitrification process operating in the sediment-water interface of the Ashtamudi estuary. The enrichment of total N, P and Fe in the interstitial water compared to the overlying counterparts and the positive correlation of sediment N, P and Fe with mud contents as well as organic carbon indicate that these elements are liberated during the early diagenetic decomposition of organic matter trapped in estuarine muds. Received: 5 Oktober 1998 · Accepted: 9 February 1999     

Thermal waters in the U.S.S.R.

A very interesting and informative paper on widespread occurrence of a thermal hydrosphere. Geothermal power uses are discussed. Distribution of heated waters, some up to 150° C is discussed in considerable detail, especially with reference to possible power utilization of the geothermal energy. Seven hydrothermal regions of the U.S.S.R. are discussed and delineated. Chemical quality of waters is referred to. There is a summary listing of locations in the U.S.S.R. where thermal waters could be utilized for generation of electric power. — B. N. Cooper.     

Isotopic Composition of Waters in the Dem?novská dolina Valley and Its Underground Hydrologic System During Winter and Spring of 2010/2011

In the Dem?novská dolina Cave system (Slovakia) and its vicinity, 32 sampling places for regular observation (in 2-months interval) of δ18O and δ2H in water were established. This monitoring included precipitation waters, waters in the surface streams, waters of the underground hydrological system as well as the dripping seepage waters of the cave system. Altitudinal extent of the area was from 800 m a.s.l. (lowermost cave entrance) to 2024 m a.s.l. (Chopok Mt. on the top of the crystalline range). Initial results show some similarities but also differences within the analyzed water types. For precipitation, a high variability of isotopic composition was confirmed, from quite depleted up to more enriched waters (δ18O from -16.8‰ up to -5.7‰; δ2H from -121.6‰ to -32.7‰). During the recharge process and groundwater/surface water formation, precipitation water is homogenized, what is reflected in much more stable isotope content. The most depleted (δ18O ≈ -11.7‰ to -10.8‰; δ2H ≈ -78.9‰ to -73.4‰) were the waters of surface streams, running from the northern slopes of the Nízke Tatry Mts., formed by crystalline rocks, alochtonous to the under?ground hydrological system. Smaller autochtonous surface water streams (formed in the side valleys of the main karstic canyon) are slightly enriched (heavier, as δ18O ≈ -11.4‰ to -10.6‰; δ2H ≈ -78.3‰ to -71.5‰), what reflects lower altitudes of their watersheds. Interesting is the distribution of the isotope content of the underground streams in the cave system. The most depleted are the underground streams directly (visibly) communicating with surface waters (δ18O≈-11.33±0.13‰; δ2H≈-76.88±1.68‰). Extent of the relationship of underground streams to the autochtonous seepage waters (slow circulation through the fissures) is manifested by respective portion of iso?topically enriched waters–as the underground streams show different isotope composition. The combination of the alochtonous water components (from surface streams reaching the karstic area from the adjacent crystalline via swallow holes) and autochtonous water components (recharged directly in karstified limestones) is visible especially on the subsurface stream of Dem?novka. The most isotopically enriched (heaviest) of all water types are dripping seepage waters (δ18O ≈ -10.4‰ to -9.4‰; δ2H ≈ -71.6‰ to -65.0‰).     

Zur Barium-Strontium-Mineralisation

The baryte occurrences along N to NW striking faults in Carboniferous and Devonian strata of the Ruhr area and the Rheinisches Schiefergebirge (Western Germany) are related to still presently active chloridic, Ba-Sr bearing Na and Na-Ca solutions. These originated from deeper seated waters which have their origin in meteoric waters circulating in the fault systems, and in fossil waters from Ba-rich Ordovician strata. Experimental results of the solubility behaviour of BaSO₄ and SrSO₄ in water and in aqueous solutions can explain the Ba and Sr content of these recent and fossil brines. A theory of Ba-Sr mineralisation is presented for the Rheinisches Schiefergebirge which is believed to find general application in other regions.     

Nutrient inputs to the Choptank River estuary: Implications for watershed management

Degraded water quality due to water column availability of nitrogen and phosphorus to algal species has been identified as the primary cause of the decline of submersed aquatic vegetation in Chesapeake Bay and its subestuaries. Determining the relative impacts of various nutrient delivery pathways on estuarine water quality is critical for developing effective strategies for reducing anthropogenic nutrient inputs to estuarine waters. This study investigated temporal and spatial patterns of nutrient inputs along an 80-km transect in the Choptank River, a coastal plain tributary and subestuary of Chesapeake Bay, from 1986 through 1991. The study period encompassed a wide range in freshwater discharge conditions that resulted in major changes in estuarine water quality. Watershed nitrogen loads to the Choptank River estuary are dominated by diffuse-source inputs, and are highly correlated to freshwater discharge volume. in years of below-average freshwater discharge, reduced nitrogen availability results in improved water quality throughout most of the Choptank River. Diffuse-source inputs are highly enriched in nitrogen relative to phosphorus, but point-source inputs of phosphorus from sewage treatment plants in the upper estuary reduce this imbalance, particularly during summer periods of low freshwater discharge. Diffuse-source nitrogen inputs result primarily from the discharge of groundwater contaminated by nitrate. Contamination is attributable to agricultural practices in the drainage basin where agricultural land use predominates. Groundwater discharge provides base flow to perennial streams in the upper regions of the watershed and seeps directly into tidal waters. Diffuse-source phosphorus inputs are highly episodic, occurring primarily via overland flow during storm events. Major reductions in diffuse-source nitrogen inputs under current landuse conditions will require modification of agricultural practices in the drainage basin to reduce entry rates of nitrate into shallow groundwater. Rates of subsurface nitrate delivery to tidal waters are generally lower from poorly-drained versus well-drained regions of the watershed, suggesting greater potential reductions of diffuse-source nitrogen loads per unit effort in the well-drained region of the watershed. Reductions in diffuse-source phosphorus loads will require long-term management of phosphorus levels in upper soil horizons. *** DIRECT SUPPORT *** A01BY074 00021     

Sulfur speciation and associated trace metals (Fe,Cu) in the pore waters of Great Marsh,Delaware

The pore waters of sediments from a salt marsh along the Delaware estuary have been analyzed for sulfur species and associated trace metals. Since the sediment interface is usually in contact with the atmosphere, the sulfur species are dependent on the production of hydrogen sulfide by sulfate reduction and subsequent oxidation by diffusing oxygen. The most important species observed are hydrogen sulfide, polysulfide ions and thiosulfate. Secondary reactions of hydrogen sulfide and polysulfides with decomposing organic matter yield significant concentrations of both thiols and organic polysulfides. Upon isolation of the sediment from the atmosphere due to tidal inundation, bacterial sulfate reduction becomes the dominant process. This results in the reduction of the polysulfides in agreement with thermodynamic predictions, and suggests that the redox couple sulfide/polysulfide is a good redox indicator under such reducing environments.The concentrations of trace elements Cu and Fe in the pore waters are mainly controlled by sulfide formation. Calculations show that copper is strongly complexed probably with organo-sulfur ligands. Iron might be complexed as such sulfur species to a much lesser extent than copper.     

Transport of Crustacean Larvae Between a Low-Inflow Estuary and Coastal Waters

The effectiveness of larval behavior in regulating transport between well-mixed, low-inflow estuaries and coastal waters in seasonally arid climates is poorly known. We determined the flux of an assemblage of benthic crustacean larvae relative to physical conditions between a shallow estuary and coastal waters on the upwelling coast of northern California (38°18′N, 123°03′W) from 29 to 31 March 2006. We detected larval behaviors that regulate transport in adjacent coastal waters and other estuaries for only two taxa in the low-inflow estuary, but they were apparent for taxa outside the estuary. Vertical mixing in the shallow estuary may have overwhelmed larvae of some species, or salinity fluctuations may have been too slight to cue tidal vertical migrations. Nevertheless, all larval stages of species that complete development in nearshore coastal waters were present in the estuary, because they remained low in the water column reducing seaward advection or they were readily exchanged between the estuary and open coast by tidal flows. Weak tidal flows and gravitational circulation at the head of the estuary reduced seaward transport during development for species that completed development nearshore, whereas larval release during nocturnal ebb tides enhanced seaward transport for species that develop offshore. Thus, nonselective tidal processes dominated larval transport for most species back and forth between the low-inflow estuary and open coastal waters, whereas in adjacent open coastal waters, larval behavior in the presence of wind-induced shear was more important in regulating migrations between adult and larval habitats along this upwelling coast.     

Secondary Calcification of Planktic Foraminifera from the Indian Sector of Southern Ocean

This study focused on planktic foraminifera in plankton tows and surface sediments from the western Indian sector of Southern Ocean in order to evaluate the potential foraminiferal secondary calcification and/or dissolution in the sediment. It is found that the symbiotic foraminiferal species are abundant in the subtropical region, whereas non-symbiotic species dominate in the sub-Antarctic and polar frontal regions. The distribution of the symbiotic and non-symbiotic foraminiferal species is controlled by temperature, salinity, light, nutrients and phytoplankton biomass. There is also a lateral southern extent in abundance of planktic foraminifera from surface sediments to plankton tows. The shell weights of the planktic foraminifera N. pachyderma, G. bulloides and G. ruber within the surface sediments are on an average heavier by 27%, 34% and 40% respectively than shells of the same size within the plankton tows, indicative of secondary calcification. The planktic foraminiferal isotopes show the presence of heavier isotopes in the surface sediment foraminifera as compared to plankton tows, thus confirming secondary calcification. Secondary calcification in G. ruber occurs in the euphotic zone, whereas in case of N. pachyderma and G. bulloides it is at deeper depths. We also observed a decrease in the shell spines in surface sediment foraminifera as compared to plankton tows, indicative of the morphological changes that foraminifera underwent during gametogenesis.