Production of selected cosmogenic radionuclides by muons: 2. Capture of negative muons

We have determined the production yields for radionuclides in Al₂O₃, SiO₂, S, Ar, K₂SO₄, CaCO₃, Fe, Ni and Cu targets, which were irradiated with slow negative muons at the Paul Scherrer Institute in Villigen (Switzerland). The fluences of the stopped negative muons were determined by measuring the muonic X-rays. The concentrations of the long-lived and short-lived radionuclides were measured with accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) and γ-spectroscopy, respectively. Special emphasis was put on the radionuclides ¹⁰Be, ¹⁴C and ²⁶Al produced in quartz targets, ²⁶Al in Al₂O₃ and S targets, ³⁶Cl in K₂SO₄ and CaCO₃ targets, and ⁵³Mn in Fe₂O₃ targets. These targets were selected because they are also the naturally occurring target minerals for cosmic ray interactions in typical rocks. We also present results of calculations for depth-dependent production rates of radionuclides produced after cosmic ray μ⁻ capture, as well as cosmic ray-induced production rates of geologically relevant radionuclides produced by the nucleonic component, by μ⁻ capture, by fast muons and by neutron capture.     

A New Approach in Coal Mine Exploration Using Cosmic Ray Muons

Muon radiography is a technique that uses cosmic ray muons to image the interior of large scale geological structures. The muon absorption in matter is the most important parameter in cosmic ray muon radiography. Cosmic ray muon radiography is similar to X-ray radiography. The main aim in this survey is the simulation of the muon radiography for exploration of mines. So, the production source, tracking, and detection of cosmic ray muons were simulated by MCNPX code. For this purpose, the input data of the source card in MCNPX code were extracted from the muon energy spectrum at sea level. In addition, the other input data such as average density and thickness of layers that were used in this code are the measured data from Pabdana (Kerman, Iran) coal mines. The average thickness and density of these layers in the coal mines are from 2 to 4 m and 1.3 gr/c³, respectively. To increase the spatial resolution, a detector was placed inside the mountain. The results indicated that using this approach, the layers with minimum thickness about 2.5 m can be identified.     

Be andCl depth profiles in an Apollo 15 drill core

Cosmic-ray-produced¹⁰Be (t_1/2 = 1.6 × 10⁶ years) and³⁶Cl (t_1/2 = 3.0 × 10⁵ years) have been measured in the Apollo 15 long core for study of galactic cosmic ray production profiles using tandem accelerator mass spectrometry. From these experiments, the half-attenuation length for¹⁰Be production and³⁶Cl production were calculated to be 120 g/cm² and 132 g/cm² (150–400 g/cm² region). The measured half-attenuation length for¹⁰Be is slightly longer than that predicted by the Reedy-Arnold theoretical model. The flatter and somewhat deeper maximum seen in the³⁶Cl profile compared to the¹⁰Be,²⁶Al and⁵³Mn profiles can be explained by production from secondary thermal neutrons on³⁵Cl.     

Al depth profile in Apollo 15 drill core

Cosmic-ray-produced²⁶Al (t_1/2 = 7.05 × 10⁵ years) has been measured in the Apollo 15 long core (surface to 390 g/cm²—218 cm) for study of galactic cosmic ray production profiles, using accelerator mass spectrometry. The results are in general accord with non-destructive counting data obtained earlier, but systematically lower, and significantly higher precision. From this experiment the half-attenuation length for²⁶Al production can be calculated to be 122 g/cm² (150–400 g/cm² region) after normalizing the data to average chemical composition. The⁵³Mn (t_1/2 = 3.7 × 10⁶ years) production profile in deep cores was also compiled to date. The half-attenuation length for⁵³Mn production was calculated to be 123 g/cm² (150–400 g/cm² region).     

Ages and composition of gas trapped in Allan Hills and Byrd core ice

Gas is extracted from large (6–31 kg) Antarctic ice samples to obtain sufficient CO₂ for¹⁴C measurements with small low-level proportional counters. The¹⁴C ages of Byrd core ice are in accord with glaciological estimates ranging from (2.2_−1.1^+1.4)×10³ yr at 271 m depth to more than 8 × 10³ yr at 1071 m depth. The CO₂ abundances in gas extracted from Byrd core ice range from 0.0216 to 0.051%, with below present-day atmosphere CO₂ abundances for ice from 1068 and 1469 m depths. The CO₂ abundance in gas from Allan Hills surface ice samples ranges between four and six times the atmospheric value and the CO₂ had a specific activity three times that of contemporary carbon. A possible explanation for the anomalously high specific activity is surface melting with the incorporation into CO₂ of¹⁴C produced by cosmic ray spallation of oxygen in ice. The CO₂ abundance in gas extracted from subsurface Allan Hills ice ranged from 0.030 to 0.065%, and the specific activities are below contemporary carbon, indicating ages greater than 5×10³ yr. The¹⁸O/¹⁶O ratio of oxygen in the trapped gas is the same as that of atmospheric oxygen and differs markedly from the¹⁸O/¹⁶O ratio in the ice. The O₂, N₂, and Ar abundances and isotopic compositions are similar to those in contemporary air, except for positive¹⁵N/¹⁴N ratios in a few samples.     

宇宙线μ子能谱及其应用

完成由两块大面积塑料闪烁体组成的粒子望远镜的研制,并测得合肥地区地面宇宙线μ子能谱.简要报道这台粒子望远镜的实际应用.     

宇宙线小波分析在大地磁暴预报中的应用

利用Morlet小波变换方法对北京宇宙线台站的地面宇宙线强度在地磁暴前后的变化特征进行分析,得到:1)在平静期,北京宇宙线数据存在准24h周期性的特征,且通过分析周期为12h的Morlet小波"模",发现值稳定,且小于0.6;2)以90天为时间窗口,对2004年7月地磁暴前后的小波频谱变化进行详细分析,发现当发生大地磁暴时,宇宙线的静日准24h周期被打破,其他周期的波动开始增强.进一步研究发现,周期12h的波动在大地磁暴数小时到1天左右会出现显著增强,这一现象在2001、2002和2004年期间的大地磁暴前得到验证.3)Morlet小波"模"数据的急速增大是发生地磁暴的先兆特征,当小波模变化达到一定的阈值就可能发生大磁暴.本文分析了周期为12h时小波的模数据,对强地磁暴事件进行统计,选定阈值0.6,并通过2003年的6次大地磁暴进行预报验证,结果表明该方法不仅能够对大地磁暴事件进行预报,而且提前量满足预报需求,为基于宇宙线实测数据预报地磁暴方法提供了重要基础.     

Extent of immobilisation of phosphate during aeration of nutrient-rich, anoxic groundwater

Nutrient-rich exfiltrating groundwater may impose a heavy phosphate load on surface water systems. However, iron oxides that bind PO₄ precipitate fast upon oxygenation at neutral pH and PO₄ may also become bound in Ca precipitates following upon pH increase, so load estimates based on conservative behaviour during exfiltration will be overestimates. Aeration experiments using natural groundwater were performed to characterise the immobilisation of PO₄ within one day after aeration started. Groundwaters having a wide variety in composition, were sampled in the coastal lowlands of the Western Netherlands. Three models were considered to describe the fast binding of PO₄ by Fe oxide type phases that form upon the oxygenation of dissolved Fe(II), each based on a different concept. The concepts were surface complexation, solid-solution precipitation and two-mineral precipitation. When the experimental data were compared with model results, all three models were found to be inadequate. Frequently, more immobilisation of PO₄ occurred than could be explained by binding to a Fe oxide type of phase alone. Uptake by Ca phosphates and/or Ca carbonates must additionally have played a role; alternatively, a non-ideal phase consisting of Ca, Fe and PO₄ precipitated upon oxygenation and CO₂ degassing. A predictive multiple regression model with two primary variables that reflect the driving forces for PO₄ immobilisation was deduced that describes immobilisation of phosphate after aeration of anoxic groundwater. The two primary variables are the log value of the groundwater Fe to PO₄ molar ratio and the saturation state for hydroxyapatite after the CO₂ degassing of groundwater. The model is useful for calculating the PO₄ load of surface water from exfiltration groundwater, taking into account fast immobilisation (<1 day) during exfiltration.     

Solar modulation in surface atmospheric electricity

The solar wind modulates the flux of galactic cosmic rays impinging on Earth inversely with solar activity. Cosmic ray ionisation is the major source of air's electrical conductivity over the oceans and well above the continents. Differential solar modulation of the cosmic ray energy spectrum modifies the cosmic ray ionisation at different latitudes, varying the total atmospheric columnar conductance. This redistributes current flow in the global atmospheric electrical circuit, including the local vertical current density and the related surface potential gradient. Surface vertical current density and potential gradient measurements made independently at Lerwick Observatory, Shetland, from 1978 to 1985 are compared with modelled changes in cosmic ray ionisation arising from solar activity changes. Both the lower troposphere atmospheric electricity quantities are significantly increased at cosmic ray maximum (solar minimum), with a proportional change greater than that of the cosmic ray change.     

The registration-temperature dependence of heavy-ion track-etch rates and annealing sensitivity in crystals: implications for cosmic ray identification and fission track dating of meteorites

Etch rates and etchable lengths of cosmic ray tracks in meteoritic crystals have been used by several workers to derive the charge spectrum of ancient cosmic rays. This is done by comparing the fossil cosmic ray track record with fresh accelerator-produced calibration tracks. These calibration tracks are generally produced at room temperature, while meteorites spend a high proportion of their lifetimes orbiting at large distances from the Sun ( 3–5 AU) and are, consequently, at much lower temperatures (typically 100–150 K) during most of their cosmic ray exposure ages. We have irradiated crystals of apatite, olivine, enstatite and diopside held at 77, 293, 473 and 573 K, with 2 MeV/nucleon⁸¹Br ions, and then etched them. We find that their track etching properties are dependent upon the temperature of the mineral during registration. The track etch velocity generally increases with registration temperature up to 300 or 500 K (the upper limit depending upon the type of crystal). Our results also indicate that the annealing sensitivity of fission tracks in fluorapatite may be influenced by the registration temperature. This temperature dependence has important implications not only for cosmic ray particle identification but also for fission track dating of meteorites in view of the fact that the meteorite parent bodies were at elevated temperatures at the beginning af their life when²⁴⁴Pu fission tracks were being generated abundantly.     

MHD激波解的讨论

从Ｒａｎｋｉｎｅ－Ｈｕｇｏｎｉｏｔ关系出发，以激波切向磁场ξ、上游激波角θ_１和等离子体β_１值为参数研究各类激波解的特性及相互关系，阐明各类激波强度随介质β值的变化规律．结果指出：（１）在ξ＜－１的Ⅰ_ｂ型中间激波区和ξ＞４的快激波区存在双解；（２）慢激波可以直接和中间激波连接，但不能和快激波直接连接；（３）各类激波强度（用激波密度比衡量）随β_１值均有变化：Ⅰ_ｂ型中间激波上支随β_１值增加而下降，下支则上升；Ⅰ_ａ型中间激波和慢激波都随β_１值增加而下降；快激波双解区上支随β_１值增加而下降。下支上升；快激波在１＜ξ＜４区间的解随β_１值增加而上升。     

N2O增加对大气环境影响的模拟及其与甲烷和平流层水汽影响的比较

本文利用美国国家大气环境中心(NCAR)的二维化学、辐射和动力相互作用的模式(SOCRATES),模拟了大气中N₂O增加对O₃和温度的影响,并从化学、辐射和动力过程讨论了影响原因,此外还与大气甲烷和平流层水汽增加对大气环境的影响进行了对比.分析表明:大气中N₂O浓度增加以后,将通过化学过程引起30 km以上O₃损耗,30~40 km损耗较多;30 km以上降温明显,下平流层中低纬度地区以及对流层O₃增加并有微弱升温;30~40 km附近,北半球中高纬地区O₃减少以及降温幅度都大于南半球.对流层升温主要是N₂O和O₃增加所致,而平流层温度变化主要受O₃控制.北半球中高纬地区动力过程对温度变化的反馈较其它地区明显,这种反馈对平流层中高层北半球中高纬地区温度和O₃的变化都有明显影响.大气中甲烷增加引起的O₃损耗在45 km以上,45 km以下O₃增加.平流层水汽增加会引起40 km以上O₃减少,20~40 km大部分地区O₃增加.N₂O增加造成的O₃损耗正好位于臭氧层附近,其排放对未来O₃层恢复至关重要.N₂O增加引起下平流层15~25 km中低纬度地区有弱的升温,这与其它温室气体增加对该地区温度的影响不同,CO₂,CH₄和H₂O等增加后下平流层通常是降温.     

Effects of cosmic rays on the Earth's environment

Cosmic rays are considered as a possible link coupling solar activity to atmospheric processes. The most intense types of cosmic ray flux modulations are briefly described as a source of variability in the ion production rate in the atmosphere. The ions may affect atmospheric phenomena through (1) charge-dependent chemical reactions, (2) charge-dependent droplet and ice crystal formation, and (3) as their influence on the current flowing in the global electric circuit. However, the latter two have still to be proved as the causes of correlations between changes in the large-scale meteorological parameters and cosmic ray flux variations.     

A new high-pressure phase of Ca2Al2SiO7 and implications for the earth''s interior

Gehlenite (Ca₂Al₂SiO₇) has been found to transform to a new phase at pressures greater than 100 kbar and at about 1000°C, using a diamond-anvil pressure cell coupled with laser heating. The atoms of the new phase appear to be arranged in a perovskite-related structure similar to that described for Na₂Ti₃O₇. The structure probably consists of layers of (Al₂SiO₇)⁴⁻, which are built up from blocks of edge-sharing (Al, Si)O₆ octahedra and these blocks are joined by common octahedra corners. A small cubic unit cell with a = 3.719 ± 0.004 Å indexes completely the strong lines of the powder diffraction pattern, and a superlattice with a = 14.88 ± 0.02 Å satisfies all the observed weak lines in addition to the strong ones. However, the cell may be pseudocubic. The small cell contains a half of the gehlenite formula while the large cell contains 32 gehlenite formulae. Hence the molar volume for the new phase of Ca₂Al₂SiO₇ is calculated to be 61.96 ± 0.20 cm³ at atmospheric pressure and room temperature. The new sodium titanate-type structure is probably more closely packed than an ordinary perovskite-type structure in which all octahedral corners are shared. This view is strongly supported by the very great density of this new phase, which is about 8% denser than the equivalent mixture of CaAl₂O₄ (calcium ferrite type) plus CaSiO₃ (cubic perovskite type). The new phase is probably the most closely packed silicate known. Mg₂SiO₄ (spinel) was found to transform to an assemblage containing MgSiO₃ (perovskite) plus MgO (periclase) at P-T conditions equivalent to the upper part of the lower mantle. By reacting with MgO, the perovskite modification of both MgSiO₃ and MgSiO₃ · xAl₂O₃ may adopt the sodium titanate structure at the still greater depths of the lower mantle. If the sodium titanate structures of Mg₂(Al₂Si)O₇ and Mg₂(MgSi₂)O₇ are present in the deep part of the lower mantle, MgO does not exist as a separate phase at the mantle-core boundary. This might be an obstacle to the possibility of dissolving these oxides (specifically the FeO component) in the molten Fe in the outer core as suggested by geophysical and geochemical studies of the earth's interior. The mechanism for developing the chemical plumes in the deep mantle proposed by Anderson does not appear to be consistent with studies of phase transformations in Ca-Al-rich compounds as outlined in this paper.     

由多个地震的震源机制解推断喜马拉雅弧形山系的构造应力场

利用地震P波的初动符号测定出地震的震源机制解,进而推断构造活动区的区域应力场,一直是地震学的重要课题。 为了研究喜马拉雅弧形地带的构造应力场,本文采用了G.Vasseur等人提出的求综合断层面解的定量方法。它以每个震源机制解的两个节面解（断层面和辅助面）作为基本资料,试图求出该地区的统一应力场。这个应力场能够较一致地符合各个地震的节面解。     

A model for the layered upper mantle

Numerical modeling of mantle convection by Liu (1994, Science, 264: 1904–1907) favors a two-layer convection, if the results are reinterpreted for the correct phase relations in (Mg,Fe)₂SiO₄. The resulting chemical isolation of the upper and lower mantle suggests a highly differentiated and layered upper mantle to account for the discrepancy between the observed compositions of mantle xenoliths and the cosmic abundances of elements. It is shown that a layered upper mantle with a hidden reservoir can have a structure consistent with the observed seismic velocity profiles and an average bulk composition corresponding to the cosmic abundances. The evolution of the upper mantle and the origin of komatiites are discussed in the context of the proposed model.     

Long-period variations in the amplitude-phase interrelation of the first cosmic ray anisotropy harmonic

The distinguished directions, dependent on the solar wind velocity and IMF line position, exist in the interplanetary space, which results in the nonuniform distribution of phases and the amplitude-phase interrelation of the first cosmic ray anisotropy harmonic. The characteristics of the first anisotropy harmonics, determined for each hour using the global survey method based on the worldwide neutron monitor network from 1957 to 2010, were used to study long-period variations in the cosmic ray anisotropy. The longitudinal distributions of the cosmic ray vector anisotropy and the interrelation between the anisotropy amplitude and phase have been obtained for each year in this time interval. The results evidently demonstrate the anisotropy variations caused by the solar magnetic and activity cycles. The anisotropy distributions at different solar wind velocities have also been studied. Periods with a specific cosmic ray anisotropy behavior are distinguished and discussed. The obtained cosmic ray anisotropy variations agree with the convection-diffusion anisotropy model.     

怀安盆地北缘断裂东段土壤气体地球化学特征

活动断裂带的土壤气体地球化学测量在活动断裂危险性评价方面起着重要作用。 本文讨论了怀安盆地北缘断裂东段的土壤气体地球化学特征及其构造意义。 我们于2012年7月和2013年6月在怀安盆地北缘断裂东段的羊窖沟以及张家窑两地现场测量了土壤气体组分的浓度和通量。 测量结果表明: ① 断裂带土壤气H₂、 Rn、 CO₂和Hg浓度空间分布曲线呈现双峰模式, 且断裂下盘土壤气的Rn、 CO₂和Hg浓度较上盘的高; H₂、 Rn、 CO₂和Hg浓度平均值分别是4.61 ppm、 4.81 k Bqm^-3、 0.38%和9 ngm^-3; 土壤气Rn和CO₂的通量平均值分别是6718 Bqm^-2d^-1和49.83 gm^-2d^-1; ② 土壤气Rn和CO₂在两个测区脱气强烈, 羊窖沟地区土壤气CO₂、 Rn和Hg浓度平均值以及土壤气Rn和CO₂通量值较张家窑地区高。 这些结果可能是两个测区断裂活动性差异引起的。     

Monitoring volcanic hazard using eddy covariance at Solfatara volcano, Naples, Italy

An eddy covariance (EC) station was deployed at Solfatara crater, Italy, June 8–25, 2001 to assess if EC could reliably monitor CO₂ fluxes continuously at this site. Deployment at six different locations within the crater allowed areas of focused gas venting to be variably included in the measured flux. Turbulent (EC) fluxes calculated in 30-min averages varied between 950 and 4460 g CO₂ m⁻² d⁻¹; the highest measurements were made downwind of degassing pools. Comparing turbulent fluxes with chamber measurements of surface fluxes using footprint models in diffuse degassing regions yielded an average difference of 0% (±4%), indicating that EC measurements are representative of surface fluxes at this volcanic site. Similar comparisons made downwind of degassing pools yielded emission rates from 12 to 27 t CO₂ d⁻¹ for these features. Reliable EC measurements (i.e. measurements with sufficient and stationary turbulence) were obtained primarily during daytime hours (08:00 and 20:00 local time) when the wind speed exceeded 2 m s⁻¹. Daily average EC fluxes varied by ±50% and variations were likely correlated to changes in atmospheric pressure. Variations in CO₂ emissions due to volcanic processes at depth would have to be on the same order of magnitude as the measured diurnal variability in order to be useful in predicting volcanic hazard. First-order models of magma emplacement suggest that emissions could exceed this rate for reasonable assumptions of magma movement. EC therefore provides a useful method of monitoring volcanic hazard at Solfatara. Further, EC can monitor significantly larger areas than can be monitored by previous methods.     

郯庐断裂带新沂——泗洪段土壤气Rn体积活度和CO_2浓度特征研究

郯庐断裂带江苏段地区4个剖面进行了土壤气Rn体积活度和CO_2浓度测量结果显示,自北向南土壤气Rn体积活度均值分别为22.9kBq/m^3、35.5kBq/m^3、40.2kBq/m^3、26.6kBq/m^3;自北向南土壤气CO_2浓度均值分别为0.669%、0.400%、0.503%、1.109%。土壤气Rn体积活度和CO_2的浓度在空间分布上具有较好的一致性,这可能与CO_2是Rn的载气有关。综合分析土壤气Rn和CO_2测量结果以及水准资料可得,2017年土壤气Rn高值出现在晓店段可能与区域应力应变调整有关。本研究不仅为研究区以后的土壤气研究提供了参考,同时也可为研究区的构造活动研究提供地球化学资料参考。