Supergene alteration of sulphides,I. A chemical model based on massive nickel sulphide deposits at Kambalda,Western Australia

An electrochemical model for the weathering of massive sulphide deposits that have undergone conditions similar to those affecting the Kambalda nickel deposits is presented. Galvanic corrosion due to aeration of the top of the ore body near the water table results in a deep anodic reaction whereby primary sulphides undergo an oxidative transition to sulphur-rich violarite—pyrite ore and also a shallow oxidative anodic reaction where the violarite—pyrite ore is oxidised to sulphate and gossanous oxides. Electrons are conducted through the ore from the anodes to the cathode where dissolved oxygen radicals are reduced and the corrosion cells are completed by ionic transport through the groundwaters to the anodic regions that can be some 200 m deep in the case of deep weathering processes. The kinetics of the weathering are described in terms of resistance to the flow of corrosion currents in the electrochemical cells. The effect on the model of physical perturbations such as rising and falling water table, faulting, etc. is discussed.     

Platinum group element and nickel sulphide ore tenors of the Mount Keith nickel deposit, Yilgarn Craton, Australia

A set of platinum group element (PGE) analyses of about 120 samples from a 250-m continuous drill core through the Mount Keith komatiite-hosted nickel orebody, combined with Ni, Cu, Co, S, and major elements, reveals a complex trend of covariance between the original cumulus components of a thick sequence of nearly pure olivine–sulphide liquid adcumulates. The intersection is divided into informal chemostratigraphic zones, defined primarily by combinations of fine-scale cyclicity in original olivine composition, defined by Mg#, and sulphide composition, defined by Pt/S and Ni/S. Contents of Ni and PGE in 100% sulphides (tenors) were determined from linear regressions of the Ni–S and PGE–S covariance for each zone. Inferred olivine compositions range from about Fo₉₂ to Fo_94.6 and show a broad decrease from bottom to top of the sequence complicated by numerous reversals, revealing crystallisation in an open conduit system. Ni and PGE tenors of Mount Keith sulphide ores have typical values similar to the type I deposits of the Kambalda Dome. Mobility of S, at least on the scale of 2-m sample composites, is evidently relatively minor. Tenors for the various zones range 12–22% Ni, 370–1540?ppb Pt, 970–3670?ppb Pd, 100–460?ppb Ir, 170–460?ppb Rh, and 710–1260?ppb Ru. Pt, Pd, and Rh tenors are very strongly correlated, but the iridium group of platinum group elements (IPGEs; Ir and Ru) less so. Tenor variations are predominantly controlled by variations in magma/sulphide ratio R (100–350), with a minor component of variance from equilibrium crystallisation trends in the parent magma. PGE depletion in the silicate melt due to sulphide liquid extraction is limited by entrainment of sulphide liquid droplets and continuous equilibration with the transporting silicate magma. Ratios of the PGEs to one another are similar to those in the host komatiite magma, with the exception of Pt, which is systematically depleted in ores, relative to Rh and Pd and relative to host magma, by a consistent factor of about 2 to 2.5. This anomalous Pt depletion relative to PGE element ratios in unmineralized komatiitic rocks matches that observed in bulk compositions of many komatiite-hosted orebodies. The highly consistent nature of this depletion, and particularly the very strong correlation between Pt, Pd, and Rh in the Mount Keith deposit, argue that this depletion is a primary magmatic signal and not an artefact of alteration. Differential diffusion rates between Pt and the other PGEs, giving rise to a low effective partition coefficient for Pt into sulphide liquid, is advanced as a possible but not definitive explanation.     

Lead-isotope study of the sulphide ore and alteration zone,Bleikvassli zinc-lead deposit,northern Norway

The Bleikvassli Zn-Pb deposit is located in the Uppermost Allochthon of the northern Norwegian Caledonides and is enclosed in amphibolite facies, multiply deformed supracrustal rocks. The stratiform orebody occurs stratigraphically above a sequence of gneiss and amphibolite and below a thick carbonate unit. The orebody, spatially associated with a footwall microcline gneiss that contains as much as 12wt K₂O, occurs in the lower part of the Mine Sequence which also comprises (kyanite-) mica schist and quartzo-feldspathic to siliceous rocks. The host rock lithology and the metal content of the Bleikvassli orebody are consistent with a SEDEX origin of the deposit. Field relationships and chemistry suggest that the microcline gneiss represents a potassic alteration of pelitic sediments related to the ore-forming process. A 464 ± 22 Ma Rb-Sr isochron for the microcline gneiss is interpreted to be a metamorphic age resulting from resetting of the Rb-Sr isotopic system during the Caledonian orogeny. The U-Pb in the whole rock shows evidence of recent mobilization of uranium and a partial or total resetting of the system during peak metamorphism. As with most SEDEX deposits, the lead isotope composition of the Bleikvassli ore plots close to the orogen growth curve. The geological setting of the ore and the lead — isotope compositions of the galenas indicate a Cambrian age of mineralization. However, the slope of the lead isotope data indicate an age of about 1000 Ma, which is also a maximum age of ore deposition. The lead isotope data for the galena, in conjunction with the compositions of the microcline gneiss during peak metamorphism, support a model whereby the microcline rock was formed as an alteration product by the ore forming fluid and the initial lead isotope composition of the microcline rock was similar to that of the galenas during ore deposition.     

Carbonate alteration of the Upper Mount McRae Shale beneath the martite-microplaty hematite ore deposit at Mount Whaleback, Western Australia

The formation of large martite-microplaty hematite ore deposits in northwest Australia remains a contentious topic in part because important evidence supporting a unifying genetic model has not been observed at all deposits. Carbonate replacement of silica has been found along normal faults below ore at the Mount Tom Price and Giles Mini deposits, which suggests an early hypogene process during ore formation. However, such rocks have not been identified at the largest martite-microplaty hematite deposit, Mount Whaleback. In this study, samples of the Mount McRae Shale are examined for their chemistry, mineralogy and petrography. These samples were collected from several key locations, including an area that immediately underlies ore along the Mount Whaleback fault at Mount Whaleback. Compared to unaltered black Mount McRae Shale from Wittenoom Gorge in the north and altered black and red Mount McRae Shale at Mount Whaleback, reddish-green Mount McRae Shale along the Mount Whaleback fault is greatly enriched in MgO and CaO and depleted in SiO₂. This chemistry arises from significant amounts of fine- to medium-grained ferroan-dolomite and ankerite and cross-cutting chlorite and carbonate veins. The composition is distinct from that produced during regional metamorphism, and most likely represents hydrothermal alteration after metamorphism. The lack of carbonate-rich, silica-poor rocks in the overlying Dales Gorge Member at Mount Whaleback is consistent with pervasive oxidation of most rocks in the region during or after ore genesis, a process that removed carbonates. Although several questions remain unanswered, these results support models that invoke an early hypogene stage during the formation of the martite-microplaty hematite deposits in the Hamersley Province.Editorial Handling: B. Lehmann     

Nickel tenor variations between Archaean komatiite-associated nickel sulphide deposits, Kambalda ore field, Western Australia: the metamorphic modification model revisited

Summary Geochemical data for 870 ore samples of 14 nickel sulphide (NiS) deposits from throughout the major Archaean Kambalda ore field, Western Australia, reveal highly heterogeneous Ni tenor (wt% Ni in 100wt% sulphide) variation that is difficult to explain solely by magmatic processes. The Ni tenor values for the deposits range from 6.2wt% Ni (Helmut deposit) to 19.7wt% Ni (Carnilya Hill deposit), close to the range for within single deposits (9.7–19.3wt% Ni). Contents of Ni and platinum-group elements (PGE) broadly increase with decreasing Fe and with increasing abundance of metamorphic pyrite+magnetite±silicates. In turn, the abundance of the metamorphic phases appears to be complexly related to structural setting, metamorphic grade, alteration type, and proximity to felsic intrusion. Chondrite-normalised multi-element plots of deposit compositions reveal relative depletions in Au, As, Bi, and Te.The relationship of increasing Ni content with secondary phase abundance indicates a strong role for metamorphic modification in the tenor variation. Replacement of pyrrhotite by pyrite+magnetite±chlorite during oxidation reduced the abundance of Fe sulphide relative to Ni sulphide and increased the Ni tenor of the residual sulphide. The extent of the oxidation reflects the extent of alteration fluid ingress along deformation structures and fabrics during talc-carbonate alteration, regional metamorphism, and felsic intrusion related to D3. The relative depletions of Au, As, Bi and Te combined with relative enrichments of these metals in nearby orogenic gold deposits mean that NiS deposits could represent metal reservoirs for Archaean gold hydrothermal systems.     

Rank statistical analysis of nickel sulphide resources of the Norseman-Wiluna Greenstone Belt,Western Australia

Estimating the undiscovered mineral resources of a terrane is a challenging, yet essential, task in mineral exploration. We apply Zipf’s law rank statistical analysis to estimate the undiscovered nickel sulphide resources in the Norseman-Wiluna Greenstone Belt, Western Australia. The analysis suggests that about 3.0 to 10.0 Mt of nickel sulphide resources are yet to be discovered in this belt, compared to the currently known total nickel sulphide endowment of 10.8 Mt. This undiscovered nickel sulphide endowment is likely to be hosted by incompletely delineated deposits and undiscovered deposits in less explored komatiites in the belt. Using the more detailed data subset of the Kambalda domain, this study manipulates Zipf’s law to estimate the sizes of undiscovered deposits, in addition to the domain’s total nickel sulphide endowment estimate. Importantly, regression analysis shows that the gradient of the line of best fit through the logarithmic rank-size plot for the detailed Kambalda data subset is −1. This gradient, which is the key Zipf’s law constant k, has the value of −0.92 for the Norseman-Wiluna Greenstone Belt which is collectively less mature than the Kambalda domain. This result corroborates the use of k = −1 in Zipf’s law predictive analyses of mineral resources for deposit populations for which the value of k = −1 has not yet been attained due to exploration immaturity.     

Secondary geochemical dispersion patterns associated with the nickel sulphide deposits at Kambalda,Western Australia

Geochemical investigations have shown that the nickel sulphide mineralisation at Kambalda is detectable by sampling and analysing the minus 80-mesh fraction of near-surface soils. Over unmineralised mafic and ultramafic rocks the distribution of Ni in soils accurately reflects bedrock Ni distribution. In the environment of sulphide mineralisation Ni is preferentially concentrated in the coarse fractions of the soils, with a corresponding depletion in the minus 80-mesh fraction. Both Ni and Cu nevertheless display strong anomalies in minus 80-mesh fraction soils in the immediate vicinity of sub-outcropping mineralisation.     

Supergene and hypogene alteration in the dual-use kaolin-bearing coal deposit Angren, SE Uzbekistan

The Jurassic Angren coal–kaolin deposit, Uzbekistan, is one of the largest producers of coal and kaolin suitable for refractories and industrial ceramics in central Asia. The Major coal seam, attaining a thickness between 4 and 24 m, is encased by kaolin-bearing bedsets which have been derived from supergene pre- and hypogene post coal kaolinization. Joint clay-mineralogical and coal petrographic analyses formed the basis of the environment analysis of this coal–kaolin series and constrained the physico-chemical conditions existing during the Triassic through Jurassic period of time. Massive kaolin I underneath the coal seam is a typical residual kaolin or underclay with arsenic Fe-disulfides and siderite indicative of a reducing swampy depositional environment developing under moderately hot climatic conditions. Towards the top, kaolin I became reworked fluvial by processes. The Major coal seam developed in swamps interfingering with a fluvial drainage system of suspended to mixed-load deposits. The maximum temperature for the post-depositional alteration of the carbonaceous material is 70 °C. Post-coal kaolinization (kaolin II) affecting trachyandesites and trachytes is of low-temperature origin and low-sulphidation-type. The temperature of formation was well below 200 °C, deduced from the absence of dickite in the clay mineral assemblage. Basaltic dykes intersected the coal–kaolin series and account for contact metamorphic reactions in the proximal parts of the aluminum-bearing wall rocks reaching sanidinite-facies conditions with temperatures around 1000 °C.     

Supergene alteration of sulphides,II. A chemical study of the Kambalda nickel deposits

An electrochemical study of nickel sulphide ore from three Kambalda shoots shows that the various parameters measured correlate both with depth and the degree of alteration of the ore. Eh and pH, respectively, vary from about ?0.3 V (SHE) and 8–9 for the deeper primary ore to about +0.3 V (SHE) and 5–6 for the shallower weathered ore. Leaching and simulation experiments as well as resistivity measurements all give results that support the hypothesis that galvanic corrosion resulting from differential aeration is the major mechanism in weathering of the ore. The release of iron from the ore to solution, and its subsequent hydrolysis, could exert a major influence on the pH, as indicated by the reaction: Fe²⁺ + 3H₂O → Fe(OH)₃ + 3H⁺ + e^?. The redox potential of the original mineral assemblage also plays an important role in pH control. Exploration and metallurgical consequences are discussed.     

Pyrite composition and ore genesis in the Prince Lyell copper deposit, Mt Lyell mineral field, western Tasmania, Australia

The Prince Lyell copper-gold-silver deposit occurs in the late Cambrian Mt Read Volcanics, at Queenstown, Tasmania. Steeply plunging, broadly conformable lenses of disseminated and stringer pyrite-chalcopyrite mineralisation occur in quartz-sericite-chlorite rocks derived from intense alteration of predominantly felsic lavas and volcaniclastic rocks. Middle Devonian deformation has substantially modified primary sulphide textures.Although extensively fractured, pyrite grains in the ore have retained their original pre-deformation internal structure and chemistry which are revealed by etching and electron microprobe analysis. Earliest sulphide mineralisation produced oscillatory zoned, cobalt-rich pyrite (Pyrite I), coeval with chalcopyrite mineralisation. Cobalt-rich pyrite is commonly associated with Cambrian volcanic rocks in western Tasmania and suggests a volcanogenic origin for the ore fluids at Prince Lyell. Pyrite I was corroded by later hydrothermal fluids and reprecipitated as unzoned, trace element-poor pyrite (Pyrite II), commonly as overgrowths on Pyrite I cores. Minor amounts of a second cobalt-rich pyrite (Pyrite III) occurs with Pyrite II in composite pyrite overgrowths. Sulphur isotope ratios from all pyrite generations fall within a small range (3 to 11‰). In situ isotopic analyses showed no consistent δ³⁴S variation between the various pyrite generations, suggesting recycling of sulphur derived from a single Cambrian volcanogenic source.Hematite alteration, derived from oxidised fluids possibly from the adjacent hematitic Owen Conglomerate, occurs in the structural footwall volcanics and the Great Lyell fault zone. Hematite inclusions in Pyrite II and III indicate that these pyrite generations occurred after or during deposition of the conglomerate. It is postulated that Pyrite II and III were deposited during waning volcanism, contemporaneous with Owen Conglomerate sedimentation in the late Cambrian or early Ordovician. The Great Lyell fault would have acted as a growth fault margin between a terrestrial basin, filling rapidly from the east, and the volcanic terrane to the west. The scenario raises the possibility that the concentration of mineral deposits and hematitic alteration along the Great Lyell fault resulted from the subsurface interaction of reduced volcanogenic fluids and oxidised basin waters along the growth fault contact.     

Tenor variation within komatiite-associated nickel sulphide deposits: insights from the Wannaway Deposit, Widgiemooltha Dome, Western Australia

Summary Detailed geological evaluation yields insights into the relative influence of post-volcanic structural and metamorphic processes on Ni tenor (Ni concentration in 100wt% sulphides) variation within the Wannaway N02 ore body, Western Australia. The ore body is characterised by highly variable geometrical configuration and ore zone morphology, and predominance of massive sulphides. Polyphase deformation and metamorphism to mid-amphibolite facies have modified the ore continuity, mineralogy, textures and fabrics. The up-dip and down-dip parts of the ore body are distinct from the central part, with significant structural relocation of massive ores, abundance of pyrrhotite-rich massive ores that lack mineralogical layering, and breccia ores. Massive sulphides plot within the field of Fe–Ni–S monosulphide solid solution (MSS) at 600°C and form separate low, and medium- to high-tenor populations. Nickel tenor in massive ores varies from 6.1% to 18.8% within the ore body. Moreover, massive ore tenor is highly variable (>8wt%) over distances of 20m, and the lowest tenor massive ores occur at the down-dip and up-dip parts of the ore body.Four models are evaluated as possible explanations for the wide Ni tenor variation within the Wannaway N02 ore body (i) R-factor, (ii) oxygen fugacity f(O₂), (iii) metamorphic sulphidation, and (iv) structural relocation. The highly variable massive ore tenor over such short distances and the occurrence of lowest tenor massive ores in structurally complex areas all contradict strict application of the R-factor model. The abundance of magnetite within massive ores is relatively consistent throughout the ore body, which undermines the f(O₂) model. Lack of correlation of pyrite and Ni tenor is inconsistent with the metamorphic sulphidation model. The bulk of the structural, mineralogical and geochemical evidence indicate a strong role for structural and metamorphic processes, in addition to primary volcanic processes, on Ni tenor variation. Sulphides reverted to Ni-poor MSS and Ni-rich MSS at peak metamorphism. As a result of ductility contrasts, syn- and post-peak metamorphic deformation, Ni-poor MSS was preferentially relocated along faults, producing massive ore tenor variations and destroying primary ore fabric and textures.Present address: Geoinformatics Explorations Ltd, Suite 1280, 625 Howe Street, Vancouver BC, V6C 2T6 Canada     

Age and metasomatic alteration of the Mt Neill Granite at Nooldoonooldoona Waterhole,Mt Painter Inlier,South Australia

Quartz feldspar augen gneisses, quartz augen schists and trondhjemites outcrop at Nooldoonooldoona Waterhole in the southwestern corner of the Proterozoic Mt Painter Inlier, northern Flinders Ranges, South Australia. These rocks were previously interpreted as having different origins and ages. However, we argue that all rock types were the result of deformation and strong metasomatic alteration of one common precursor: the Mt Neill Granite. Our conclusion is based on field observations that show that the different lithologies grade into each other and that intrusive contacts are lacking. Whole rock major and trace element analyses also point to a common protolith. Finally, Pb/Pb dating of magmatic zircons gave the same ca 1576 Ma age for the different rock types. Our findings necessitate a re evaluation of the published regional geology and lithostratigraphy of the Mt Painter Inlier. They also indicate that extreme care should be taken in the classification and genetic interpretation of rocks that have experienced extensive metasomatic alteration, which is common in many high grade terrains in Australia.     

Rapid mineralogical and geochemical characterisation of the Fisher East nickel sulphide prospects,Western Australia,using hyperspectral and pXRF data

The use of Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) and Thermal Infrared (TIR) hyperspectral data in mineral exploration has been well documented in many mineralisation types, but is limited in komatiite-hosted nickel sulphide deposits. This project combines hyperspectral, Portable X-ray Fluorescence (pXRF) and whole-rock geochemical data to assess different analytical techniques in the exploration of these deposits. We use the Fisher East nickel sulphide prospects, Western Australia for our case study. The Fisher East prospects lie in an area of the eastern goldfields that has historically been underexplored and understudied. The rocks have undergone intense deformation with primary igneous textures being destroyed, along with strong alteration to talc carbonate assemblages. Combining different analytical tools allowed for differentiation of A and B-zones of original komatiite flows, and the reconstruction of original volcanological facies in a setting where whole rock chemistry as well as igneous textures have been substantially modified by metamorphism. By using different lithogeochemical techniques including pXRF, this study shows the Fisher East prospects are hosted within channelised komatiite flows, and have similar characteristics to Kambalda style deposits.     

Physico-chemical conditions of ore deposition in Malanjkhand copper sulphide deposit

Heating and freezing studies on fluid inclusions in quartz from mineralized quartzfeldspar reef reveal the presence of type A CO₂-H₂O (H₂O>50% by volume), type B CO₂-H₂O (H₂O<50% by volume), type C pure CO₂ and type D pure aqueous inclusions. Types A, B and C are primary and/or psuedo-secondary inclusions while type D are secondary. Types A and B homogenize on heating into different phases at similar temperatures ranging between 307 and 476°C, indicating entrapment from boiling hydrothermal solutions. Type D inclusions homogenize into a liquid phase at temperatures between 88 and 196°C. Boiling of hydrothermal solutions led to the formation of a CO₂-rich phase of low density and salinity that coexisted with another dense and saline aqueous phase with very little CO₂ dissolved in it. Ore and gangue mineral assemblage of primary ores indicate that ore deposition was characterized by logf _{O 2}=?34.4 to ?30.2 atm, logf _{S 2}=?11.6 to ?8.8 atm and pH=4.5 to 6.5.     

Marine hdrothermal alteration at a Kuroko ore deposit,Kosaka, Japan

Isotopic compositions were determined for quartz, sericite and bulk rock samples surrounding the Uwamuki no. 4 Kuroko ore body, Kosaka, Japan. ¹⁸O values of quartz from Siliceous Ore (S.O.), main body of Black Ore B.O.) and the upper layer of B.O. are fairly uniform, +8.7 to +10.5. Formation temperatures calculated from fractionation of ¹⁸O between sericite and quartz from B.O. and upper S.O. are 250° to 300° C. The ore-forming fluids had ¹⁸O values of +1 and D values of –10, from isotope compositions of quartz and sericite.Tertiary volcanic rocks surrounding the ore deposits at Kosaka have uniform ¹⁸O values, +8.1±1.0 (n=50), although their bulk chemical compositions are widely varied because of different degrees of alteration. White Rhyolite, which is an intensely altered rhyolite occurring in close association with the Kuroko ore bodies, has also uniform ¹⁸O values, +7.9±0.9 (n=19). Temperatures of alteration are estimated to be around 300° C from the oxygen isotope fractionation between quartz and sericite. Paleozoic basement rocks phyllite and chert, have high ¹⁸O values, +18 and +19. The Sasahata formation of unknown age, which lies between Tertiary and Paleozoic formations, has highly variable ¹⁸O, +8 to +16 (n=4). High ¹⁸O values of the basement rocks and the sharp difference in ¹⁸O at their boundary suggest that the hydrothermal system causing Kuroko mineralization was mainly confined within permeable Tertiary rocks. D values of altered Tertiary volcanic rocks are highly variable ranging from –34 to –64% (n=12). The variation of D does not correlate with change of chemical composition, ¹⁸O values, nor distance from the ore deposits. The relatively high D values of the altered rocks indicate that the major constituent of the hydrothermal fluid was sea water. However, another fluid having lower D must have also participated. The fluid could be evolved sea water modified by interaction with rocks and the admixture of magmatic fluid. The variation in D may suggest that sea water mixed dispersively with the fluid.     

Primary stratigraphic controls on ore mineral assemblages in the Wannaway komatiite-hosted nickel-sulfide deposit,Kambalda camp,Western Australia

The 18 m-long UWA-04-02 drillcore from the Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE Wannaway deposit in the Widiemooltha Dome district (Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia) intersects the whole sequence of a komatiite-hosted layer of metal-rich sulfide magma. In spite of regional deformation and amphibolite facies metamorphism the sequence in the drillcore still preserves some of the original, magmatic textures and assemblages and these were examined in a great detail. The magmatic orebody typically consists of basal massive sulfides grading to net-textured (matrix) and disseminated sulfide mineralization upward into the komatiite host. The ore zone is underlined by sulfide-rich black shale passing to basalts. Country rock xenoliths are locally enclosed in the massive sulfides. Portions of the drillcore untouched by penetrative deformation and with minimal imprint by late-stage serpentinization allow the construction of a fairly complex framework where mineral assemblages and mineral chemistry of sulfides, spinels and silicates vary systematically with stratigraphy and may reflect original conditions of ore deposition. The general ore assemblage is dominated by Fe-sulfide and pentlandite, with minor sphalerite and chalcopyrite, spinels (Zn-rich chromite, Ti-magnetite), alabandite (MnS), accessory PGE-rich sulfarsenides and tellurides and rare molybdenite. Monoclinic and high-S hexagonal pyrrhotite and fresh Zn-Mn-rich chromite characterize the basal massive facies, whereas the matrix ore facies is marked by magnetite, sphalerite and a gradually S-depleted and reduced assemblage now represented by troilite exsolving low-S hexagonal pyrrhotite and alabandite. Compositional modifications of the Fe-sulfides across the whole orebody and occurrence of alabandite testify to progressive sulfur loss concomitant with the establishment of low fO₂ conditions over several meters upsequence in the matrix ore facies. PGE-rich sulfarsenides disseminated across the whole mineralized sequence display igneous textures and PGE fractionation trends. The composition of olivine intergrown with matrix sulfides and in the serpentinized hangingwall komatiite deviates from the typical unmetamorphosed komatiite-related, highly-forsteritic type. However the Fe, Mn and Zn contents of olivine crystals decrease systematically and gradually with distance from mineralization towards the hangingwall komatiite. Contamination may be an alternative to metamorphic recrystallization of olivine as the cause of these trends. The role of contamination is also shown by the trends of whole-rock data from the mineralized sequence across the entire drillcore. Textures and mineral chemistry of minerals from the different rock facies in the drillcore are evaluated in terms of metamorphic effects, although the remarkable relationship observed between stratigraphy and several major and accessory phases over metric distances is suggestive of alternative options including primary processes involving the komatiitic lava flow in its interaction both with the black shale substrate and with the sulfide melt ponding at its base.     

Structural setting, hydrothermal alteration, and gold mineralisation at the Archaean syenite-hosted Jupiter deposit, Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia

The Jupiter gold deposit in the northeastern Eastern Goldfields Province of the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia is hosted in greenschist facies metamorphosed tholeiitic basalt, quartz–alkali-feldspar syenite, and quartz–feldspar porphyry. Syenite intrudes basalt as irregularly shaped dykes which radiate from a larger stock, whereas at least three E–W and NE–SW striking quartz–feldspar porphyries intrude both syenite and basalt. Brittle–ductile shear zones are shallow-dipping, NW to NE striking, or are steep-dipping to the south and west. Quartz ± carbonate veins that host gold at Jupiter occur in all lithologies and are divided into: (1) veins that are restricted to the shear zones, (2) discrete veins that are subparallel to shear zone-hosted veins, and (3) stockwork veins that form a network of randomly oriented microfractures in syenite wallrock proximal to shallow-dipping shear zones. The gold-bearing veins comprise mainly quartz, calcite, ankerite, and albite, with minor sericite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, molybdenite, telluride minerals, and gold. Proximal hydrothermal alteration zones to the mineralised veins comprise quartz, calcite, ankerite, albite, and sericite. High gold grades (>2 g/t Au) occur mainly in syenite and in the hanging walls to shallow-dipping shear zones in syenite where there is a greater density of mineralised stockwork veins. The Jupiter deposit has structural and hydrothermal alteration styles that are similar to both granitoid-hosted, but post-magmatic Archaean lode-gold deposits in the Yilgarn Craton and intrusion-related, syn-magmatic, syenite-hosted gold deposits in the Superior Province of Canada. Based on field observations and petrologic data, the Jupiter deposit is considered to be a post-magmatic Archaean lode-gold deposit rather than a syn-intrusion deposit. Received: 5 January 1999 / Accepted: 24 December 1999     

Supergene processes and uranium ore formation in the Ronneburg ore field,Germany

The Ordovician-Lower Carboniferous sequence of slightly metamorphosed gray carbonate-terrigenous rocks contains the Silurian black cherty shales enriched in carbon (6–9%), pyrite (6–7%), and uranium (∼30 ppm). The uranium ore is localized at the pinch-out of areal and linear zones of the Early Permian supergene (exogenic) oxidation of rocks expressed in reddening (hematitization). U, As, Sb, Cu, Ni, Mo, and Ag have been removed from the oxidized black shales and concentrated in the cementation zone in form of pitchblende and sulfides in wall-rock disseminations and veinlets largely hosted in carbonate-bearing rocks. In the Late Permian, during deposition of the upper Rotliegende and Zechstein, the fractures in the basement were filled with carbonates and sulfates; uranium was partly redeposited along with enrichment in Pb and Zn. Mesozoic and Cenozoic supergene processes altered uranium ore insignificantly.     

Geochemical alteration halos around the Mount Morgan gold-copper deposit, Queensland, Australia

The Mount Morgan Au-Cu pyritic massive sulphide deposit occurs in a north-trending belt of Middle Paleozoic volcanic rocks located in south-central Queensland. The host rocks for the deposit are a normal sequence of rhyolitic tuff that have a north-northwest regional strike and easterly dips of 20° to 30°. The tuff contains thin units of chert, jasperoid and carbonate.The Mount Morgan deposit was represented by a zone of sulphide mineralization 600 m long, 100–200 m wide and 300 m deep that transects stratigraphy and can be divided into: (1) an oxidized zone, characterized by a hematitic, Au-enriched gossan with minor stratiform sphalerite-argillite; and (2) a primary zone which can be subdivided into an upper zone of greater than 50% sulphide minerals (Main Pipe orebody), and a lower siliceous stockwork zone with approximately 20% sulphide minerals (Sugarloaf orebody). Pyrite is the most abundant sulphide mineral in both the upper and lower primary zones with lesser pyrrhotite and accessory chalcopyrite, sphalerite and gold. A zone of silicification forms an envelope around the orebody and extends stratigraphically downwards in a pipe-like zone for greater than 750 m. The orebody contained 67 Mt of 4.87 g/t Au and 0.70% Cu.The distribution and variation of between 7 and 29 elements and specific conductance were examined in 1252 samples of the host rocks taken from diamond drill core and surface outcrop. The host rocks in the immediate vicinity of the deposit are marked by the development of three distinct but overlapping chemical and mineralogical zones representing an outward progression from the most intensive to a less intensive alteration. A 50-m-thick siliceous inner zone of intensely altered rocks, depleted in all investigated elements except Si, surrounds the orebody. This zone passes outward into a 100-m-thick middle zone of dominantly sericite-pyrite characterized by high concentrations of K, Fe, Cu and Co. The sericite-pyrite zone, in turn, passes into an outer 100-m-thick chlorite zone with high Fe, Mg, Mn and Zn concentrations. High concentrations of H₂O⁺ are associated with the sericite-pyrite zone and the chlorite zone. The alteration pipe underlying the Mount Morgan orebody is characterized by depletions in Na, Ca and K and enrichments in Fe and Mg. A non-economic pyrite body contained within the alteration pipe has spatially restricted enrichment halos of Fe, Mg, Zn, Cu and Co.     

Volcanic-hosted rare-metals deposit at Brockman,Western Australia

Rare-metals mineralization at Brockman, Western Australia, is the product of early pyroclastic eruption of trachytic magma enriched in volatiles and incompatible elements such as Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, Be, Y and REE and Ga. The mineralization is fine-grained (<20 m) and is the result of alteration and re-mobilization of comparatively simple magmatic precursor minerals such as columbite and zircon by F-rich deuteric solutions that were retained in an ash-flow tuff (the Niobium Tuff) following eruption. Chondrite normalized REE distributions show strong enrichment in HREE. Gel-zircon is the principal residence of the HREE, disseminated bastnaesite (±parisite and synchisite) carries the LREE and bertrandite, in late-stage calcite veins, is the host for Be. Ga occurs in K-mica in the groundmass. Trachytic flows overlying the Niobium Tuff contain many of the same ore minerals, but in trace amounts.