Semianalytical modeling on 3D stress redistribution during hydraulic fracturing stimulation and its effects on natural fracture reactivation

The hydraulic fracturing technique has been widely applied in many fields, such as the enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), the improvement of injection rates for geologic sequestration of CO₂, and for the stimulations of oil and gas reservoirs. The key points for the success of hydraulic fracturing operations in unconventional resources are to accurately estimate the redistribution of pore pressure and stresses around the induced fracture and predict the reactivations of preexisting natural fractures. The pore pressure and stress regime around hydraulic fracture are affected by poroelastic and thermoelastic phenomena as well as by fracture opening compression. In this work, a comprehensive semi-analytical model is used to estimate the stress and pore pressure distribution around an injection-induced fracture from a single well in an infinite reservoir. The model allows the leak-off distribution in the formation to be three-dimensional with the pressure transient moving ellipsoidically outward into the reservoir from the fracture surface. The pore pressure and the stress changes in three dimensions at any point around the fracture caused by poroelasticity, thermoelasticity, and fracture compression are investigated. With Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, we calculate the natural fracture reactivations in the reservoir. Then, two case studies of constant water injection into a hydraulic fracture are presented. This work is of interest in the interpretation of microseismicity in hydraulic fracturing and in the estimation of the fracture spacing for hydraulic fracturing operations. In addition, the results from this study can be very helpful for the selection of stimulated wells and further design of the refracturing operations.     

Development of efficiently coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical model to predict hydraulic fracture morphology in heavy oil reservoirs

The aim of the study involves examining the effect of heavy oil viscosity on fracture geometry in detail by establishing a heavy oil fracturing model and conventional fracturing model based on thermal–hydraulic–mechanical (THM) coupled theory, Walther viscosity model, and K–D–R temperature model. We consider viscosity and density within the heavy oil fracturing model as functions of pressure and temperature while that as constants within the conventional fracturing model. A heavy oil production well is set as an example to analyze the differences between the two models to account for the thermo-poro-elastic effect. The results show that temperature exhibits the most significant influence on the heavy oil viscosity while the influence of pressure is the least. In addition, a cooling area with a width of 0–1 m and varied length is generated near the fracture. The heavy oil viscosity increases sharply in this area, thereby indicating an area of viscosity increment. The heavy oil viscosity increases faster and is closer to wellbore, and a high viscosity increment reduces the mobility of the heavy oil and prevents the fracturing fluid from entering into the reservoir. The special viscosity distribution results in significant differences in pore pressure, oil saturation, and changing trends between these two models. In the heavy oil reservoir fracturing model, the thermal effect completely exceeds the influence of pore elasticity, and the values of the fracture length, width, and static pressure exceed those calculated in the conventional fracturing model. Thus, a comparison of the measured values indicates that the results obtained by considering viscosity as a function of temperature and pressure are more accurate. Therefore, the results of this study are expected to provide good guidelines for the design of heavy oil fracturing.     

油气藏水力压裂计算模拟技术研究现状与展望

水力压裂技术是油气藏尤其是页岩气开发中的核心技术,利用数值模拟方法进行压裂优化和产能预测又是水力压裂成功的关键。本文首先介绍了水力压裂技术的发展历程。然后从计算模型(二维模型、拟三维模型和全三维模型)和数值模拟方法(基于连续介质和基于非连续介质)两方面对油气藏开发领域的水力压裂计算模拟技术进行较全面的总结。最后,从以下3个方面指出现今研究的不足并提出了进一步的研究建议:(1)全三维模型的完善-全三维模型应当与真实的工程参数和监测数据结合,用于校正模型本身,而校正后的全三维模型又可预测和优化新的现场水力压裂作业; (2)数值模拟方法的选用-已有的水力压裂数值模拟方法种类繁多,需要针对各种方法的适用范围、计算效率和模拟效果等,进行全面的比较和优化; (3)页岩储层中天然裂缝网络的数值模拟-天然裂隙网络加剧了页岩储层力学性质的各向异性,同时水力裂缝沟通天然裂缝活化扩展是有利于储层的增渗增产,对压裂缝网的形态、尺寸和连通率等起着至关重要的作用。因此,数值计算过程中综合考虑页岩储层中天然裂缝与水力裂缝的相互作用,将是未来水力压裂模拟的热点。     

断层影响下的页岩气储层水力压裂模拟研究

断层对页岩气储层压裂改造有重要影响,甚至诱发深部地震事件和近地表环境问题。本文采用多物理场耦合方法,基于渗流和应力耦合理论,研究储层水力压裂过程中断层以及封闭顶板中水力破坏区域的产生与演化机理,并分析讨论流体沿高渗通道运移扩散机理,研究结果表明:(1)断层改变储层水力破坏区域形态并且扩展了水力压裂破坏空间。较高注水压力使储层水力破坏区域扩大到封闭顶板和底板,水力破坏区域受断层影响而沿着断层带快速发育延伸。高注水压力导致断层水力压裂破坏高度急剧增加,储层封闭性发生改变。(2)在页岩储层高风险地质构造和较高注水压力条件下,水力压裂作业产生岩石破裂和裂缝局部活化诱发的微地震事件,但难以导致破坏性地震事件,多属于断层或较大断裂局部区域产生的水力耦合破坏及可能诱发的较小地震事件。(3)水力破坏区域贯通到断层带内诱发流体沿断层带迁移,断层带的渗透率较高,水力破坏区域与上部高渗透岩层贯通会加快流体的逃逸速度,增大压裂液污染上部地层的风险,导致压裂效率降低,影响储层压裂改造,降低了页岩气开发价值。     

交变应力对套管损伤机理的影响

水平井分段压裂技术已在低渗透油气藏及煤层气开发过程中得到了较为广泛的应用,并取得了良好的经济效果。但是,由于分段压裂会使直井段的套管承受交变应力作用,进而造成其在软硬交错地层处发生严重变形,从而影响压裂安全作业,甚至引发所有剩余压裂段报废。为探索其破坏机理,开发一个类似弹簧单元的用户子程序来模拟循环荷载作用下套管-水泥环界面的受力情况,并将该单元植入到套管-水泥环-岩层系统的ABAQUS轴对称有限元模型中,模拟水平井分段压裂过程中套管的力学行为。结果表明,在软硬交错地层中,采用水平井分段压裂时,注入压力与地应力之间的交变应力差会造成套管的大变形。此外,基于ABAQUS的数值模拟结果,采用FE-safe评估套管疲劳寿命,发现处于软硬交错地层处套管的疲劳寿命最短。基于上述研究,建议在具有软硬交错地层的低渗透油藏及煤层气储层中进行分段压裂时,应设法提高非压裂阶段压力,以减轻交变应力对软硬交错地层处的套管损伤。      

An explicitly coupled hydro‐geomechanical model for simulating hydraulic fracturing in arbitrary discrete fracture networks

Modeling hydraulic fracturing in the presence of a natural fracture network is a challenging task, owing to the complex interactions between fluid, rock matrix, and rock interfaces, as well as the interactions between propagating fractures and existing natural interfaces. Understanding these complex interactions through numerical modeling is critical to the design of optimum stimulation strategies. In this paper, we present an explicitly integrated, fully coupled discrete‐finite element approach for the simulation of hydraulic fracturing in arbitrary fracture networks. The individual physical processes involved in hydraulic fracturing are identified and addressed as separate modules: a finite element approach for geomechanics in the rock matrix, a finite volume approach for resolving hydrodynamics, a geomechanical joint model for interfacial resolution, and an adaptive remeshing module. The model is verified against the Khristianovich–Geertsma–DeKlerk closed‐form solution for the propagation of a single hydraulic fracture and validated against laboratory testing results on the interaction between a propagating hydraulic fracture and an existing fracture. Preliminary results of simulating hydraulic fracturing in a natural fracture system consisting of multiple fractures are also presented. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

热应力影响下干热岩水压致裂数值模拟

干热岩水压致裂过程中低温诱导热应力与注入水压共同影响裂缝的萌生与扩展。首先通过THM耦合分析了低温压裂液注入过程中注入水压与热应力的相互作用及其对裂缝萌生的影响,随后建立描述岩石细观结构的THMD耦合模型对热应力影响下高温岩石水压致裂过程进行初探。结果表明：低温压裂液注入高温岩石产生的热应力包括岩石自身温度梯度形成的热应力与岩石颗粒非均匀膨胀导致的热应力,并在井筒周围呈现为拉应力。高注入压力将抑制热应力导致的多裂缝萌生,井筒附近热应力的存在对注入压力也具有削弱作用。基岩温度升高,裂缝萌生阶段更多裂缝在井筒附近起裂,缝网沿最大地应力方向的扩展速度减慢,但改造规模增加,同时多裂缝的存在也使得裂缝延伸压力增加。     

基于ABAQUS平台的水力裂缝扩展有限元模拟研究

随着扩展有限元理论的深入研究,利用扩展有限元方法模拟水力压裂具有了一定的可操作性。相比于常规有限元方法,XFEM方法具有计算结果精度高和计算量小的优点。但是,如何模拟射孔孔眼、如何模拟流体与岩石相互作用以及分析水力裂缝的扩展规律仍然是难题。以研究水力压裂裂缝扩展规律为目的,建立了岩石多孔介质应力平衡方程、流体渗流连续性方程和边界条件。通过有限元离散化方法对耦合方程矩阵进行处理。通过富集函数定义初始裂缝（射孔孔眼）,选择最大主应力及损伤变量D分别作为裂缝起裂和扩展判定准则,利用水平集方法模拟水力裂缝扩展过程。数值模拟结果显示：增加射孔方位角、压裂液排量和减小水平地应力差,起裂压力上升;黏度对起裂压力无明显影响。增加射孔方位角、压裂液排量、黏度和减小水平地应力差值有助于裂缝宽度的增加。增加水平地应力差值、压裂液排量和减小射孔方位角以及压裂液黏度有助于裂缝长度增加,反之亦然。基于ABAQUS的水力裂缝扩展有限元法可对不同井型和诸多储层物性参数及压裂施工参数进行分析,且裂缝形态逼真,裂缝面凹凸程度清晰,结果准确。此研究可作为一种简便有效研究水力压裂裂缝扩展规律的方法为油田水力压裂设计与施工提供参考与依据。     

基于煤储层水力压裂动态渗透率变化的压裂效果评价方法及其应用

压裂施工曲线是反映压裂效果的重要依据,而压裂阶段储层渗透率的动态变化能够更直观地反映造缝效果。借鉴试井渗透率测试原理,建立一种压裂阶段储层动态渗透率定量评价方法,并将该方法应用到准南某区块2口煤层气井水力压裂效果评价中,获得压裂阶段储层动态渗透率曲线;同时采用G函数对压裂效果进一步评价。结果表明:动态渗透率曲线所反映压裂效果与G函数分析和基于排量、井底流压关系的评价结果吻合较好,能够反映储层内裂缝开启、延伸效果;其中,CMG-01井通过实施煤储层与围岩大规模缝网改造,压裂阶段储层渗透率最高达到2.5 μm2,造缝效果良好;而CBM-02井实施煤储层常规水力压裂,储层渗透率保持在1.8 μm2之下,显示出煤储层常规水力压裂与煤储层?围岩大规模缝网改造的差异性。动态渗透率定量评价方法弥补前期压裂改造效果缺乏量化评价的不足,为煤层气/煤系气储层水力压裂工艺的优化提供依据。      

基于连续损伤的水平井射孔-近井筒三维破裂模拟

射孔作为井筒与储层之间的液流通道,是水力压裂过程中的重要可控性参数。为研究水平井射孔-近井筒破裂机制,采用岩层变形-流体渗流方程描述应力状态变化,应用连续损伤破裂单元表征三维破裂位置与形态演化,并开发有限元求解程序模拟分析了射孔对水平井初始破裂压力、破裂位置及近井筒裂缝复杂性的调控作用。通过与解析模型及射孔压裂物理模型试验结果对比,验证了模型及有限元程序的有效性;水平井破裂压力数值分析结果与现场测试数据吻合较好。研究表明：射孔可调控水平井破裂压力与初始破裂位置,同时对近井筒区域裂缝扩展形态影响显著。通过优化射孔参数可以引导初始破裂向最优破裂面扩展、有效降低破裂压力,减小由于螺旋射孔空间排布引起的水平井近井筒裂缝迂曲与复杂程度,提高致密油气藏压裂改造效果。     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987114001649

Hydrocarbon production from shale has attracted much attention in the recent years. When applied to this prolific and hydrocarbon rich resource plays, our understanding of the complexities of the flow mechanism(sorption process and flow behavior in complex fracture systems- induced or natural) leaves much to be desired. In this paper, we present and discuss a novel approach to modeling, history matching of hydrocarbon production from a Marcellus shale asset in southwestern Pennsylvania using advanced data mining, pattern recognition and machine learning technologies. In this new approach instead of imposing our understanding of the flow mechanism, the impact of multi-stage hydraulic fractures, and the production process on the reservoir model, we allow the production history, well log, completion and hydraulic fracturing data to guide our model and determine its behavior. The uniqueness of this technology is that it incorporates the so-called "hard data" directly into the reservoir model, so that the model can be used to optimize the hydraulic fracture process. The "hard data" refers to field measurements during the hydraulic fracturing process such as fluid and proppant type and amount, injection pressure and rate as well as proppant concentration. This novel approach contrasts with the current industry focus on the use of "soft data"(non-measured, interpretive data such as frac length, width,height and conductivity) in the reservoir models. The study focuses on a Marcellus shale asset that includes 135 wells with multiple pads, different landing targets, well length and reservoir properties. The full field history matching process was successfully completed using this data driven approach thus capturing the production behavior with acceptable accuracy for individual wells and for the entire asset.     

页岩水平井多段分簇压裂起裂压力数值模拟

页岩储层孔隙度和渗透率极低,天然裂缝和水平层理发育,常规压裂增产措施无法满足页岩气的开发要求,水平井多段分簇压裂是页岩气开发的关键技术之一,该技术能够大幅度提升压裂改造的体积、产气量和最终采收率。为确定页岩储层水平井多段分簇射孔压裂的起裂点和起裂压力,采用有限元方法建立了水平井套管完井（考虑水泥环和套管的存在）多段分簇射孔的全三维起裂模型。数值模型的起裂压力与室内试验结果吻合较好,证明了数值模型的准确性和可靠性。利用数值模型研究了页岩水平井多段分簇射孔压裂的起裂点和起裂压力的影响因素,研究发现：射孔孔眼附近无天然裂缝或水平层理影响,起裂点发生在射孔簇孔眼的根部;射孔簇间距越小,中间射孔簇的干扰越大,可能造成中间的射孔簇无法起裂;射孔密度和孔眼长度增大,起裂压力降低;天然裂缝的存在,在某些情况能够降低起裂压力且改变起裂位置,主要与天然裂缝的分布方位及水平主应力差有关;水平层理可能会降低起裂压力,但与垂向主应力与水平最小主应力的差值有关。获得的起裂压力变化规律,可作为进一步研究水平井多段分簇射孔条件下的裂缝扩展规律的基础,可以为压裂设计和施工的射孔参数确定及优化给出具体建议。     

川西致密砂岩气藏试井曲线特征分析

川西致密砂岩气藏属于典型的致密低渗复式气藏，气藏类型及其压力恢复曲线形态复杂，其解释模型也各不相同，这给试井解释工作带来了极大的困难。结合静动态资料、压裂作业、测试工艺，应用4种储层模型、3种井模型及边界模型组合的试井解释模型，对川西致密砂岩气藏200多井层压力恢复资料进行了，并根据试井曲线特征对曲线类型进行了分类，为今后的试井解释工作提供了一种可资借鉴的解释方法和工作思路。     

超临界CO2压裂起裂压力模型与参数敏感性研究

超临界CO2流体具有低黏度、无表面张力的特性,若应用于非常规油气储层压裂可望实现一种无污染的新型无水压裂方法。通过建立流体在井筒内的增压速率模型,得到了考虑超临界CO2流体黏度、压缩性及增压速率的裂缝起裂压力预测模型,并与水力压裂、液态CO2压裂起裂压力进行了对比分析。结果表明,超临界CO2流体的起裂压力比液态CO2流体低20.5 %,比常规水力压裂起裂压力低75.5%;超临界CO2流体的黏度、压缩性及增压速率对裂缝起裂压力影响显著。模型与文献中试验数据对比,误差在3%以内,可为超临界CO2压裂起裂压力预测提供指导。     

Poro‐elasto‐plastic response of an unconsolidated formation confined with stiff seal rocks under radial injection

In this article, we evaluate geomechanics of fluid injection from a fully penetrating vertical well into an unconsolidated formation confined with stiff seal rocks. The coupled behavior of an isotropic, homogeneous sand layer is studied under injection pressures that are high enough to induce plasticity yet not fracturing. Propagation of the significant influence zone surrounding the injection borehole, quantified by the extent of the plastic domain in the elasto‐plastic model, is examined for the first time. First, a new fully coupled axisymmetric numerical model is developed. A comprehensive assessment is performed on pore pressures, stresses/strains, and failure planes during the entire transient period of an injection cycle. Results anticipate existence of five distinctive zones in terms of plasticity state: liquefaction at wellbore; two inner plastic domains surrounding the wellbore, where failure occurs along two planes and major principal stress is in vertical direction; remaining of the plastic domain, where formation fails along one plane and major principal stress is in radial direction; and a non‐plastic region. Failure mechanism at the wellbore is found to be shear followed by liquefaction. Next, a novel methodology is proposed based on which new weakly coupled poro‐elasto‐plastic analytical solutions are derived for all three stress/strain components. Unlike previous studies, extension of the plastic zone is obtained as a function of injection pressure, incorporating plasticity effects on the subsequent elastic domain. Solutions, proven to be a good approximation of numerical simulations, offer a huge advantage as the run time of coupled numerical simulations is considerably long. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Numerical modelling of regional faults in land subsidence prediction above gas/oil reservoirs

The stress variation induced by gas/oil production may activate pre‐existing regional faults. This may enhance the expected land subsidence due to the generation of mechanically weak points close to the producing field. A class of elasto‐plastic interface elements (IE), specifically designed to address the mechanical behaviour of faults over a regional scale, is integrated into a finite element (FE) geomechanical model and used to investigate the role exerted by active faults in anthropogenic land subsidence. The importance of regional faults depends on a variety of factors including depth of the depleted reservoir, fault number, orientation and size, geomechanical properties of porous medium, pore pressure drawdown induced by fluid production, etc. With the aid of some representative examples, a useful indication is provided as to where and how fault activation may influence both magnitude and extent of the land subsidence bowl above producing gas/oil reservoirs, pointing to a generally limited impact on the ground surface. The simulation of a real faulted gas reservoir in a complex 3‐D setting shows that the proposed IE can be simply and efficiently incorporated into a FE geomechanical model, thus improving the quality of the stress and displacement prediction. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

超临界CO2分段多簇压裂井间干扰规律研究

水平井分段多簇压裂是非常规油气藏开发的关键技术,在合理利用压裂诱导应力增大储层改造体积的同时,避免井间干扰所导致的裂缝砂堵和压裂窜扰,是压裂工艺优化中的关键科学问题。文章针对超临界CO₂分段多簇压裂的缝间干扰和井间干扰问题,采用流固耦合的扩展有限元方法研究单井及多井裂缝诱导应力演化特征,充分考虑裂缝内超临界CO₂流动和滤失,从非常规油气储层岩性特征、地应力场分布及施工工艺等多方面对压裂扰动应力进行系统研究,揭示单井分段多簇压裂缝扩展机制及应力扰动特征,在此基础上研究多井井间压裂缝干扰规律。结果表明：高水平应力差、高弹性模量的储层中压裂干扰界限较大,低水平应力差、低弹性模量地层需适度增大簇间距,减小簇间干扰;老井压裂后,其邻井压裂缝非对称系数随井间距呈先增大、后减小的趋势;当井间距等于压裂干扰界限时,非对称系数λ达到最大,且井周改造范围最大,但裂缝两翼的非对称性可能导致储层动用不充分。本研究为水平井细分切割压裂和立体式井网设计优化提供理论基础,在“双碳”战略背景下对非常规油气资源高效开发具有重要意义。     

杏北油田低弯度分流河道储层构型及其控制的剩余油分布模式

低弯度分流河道储层是杏北油田的重要储层类型,深入研究其储层构型特征对于油田调整挖潜意义重大。综合密井网岩心、测井和生产动态等资料,采用“层次分析和模式指导”的方法,分“复合河道和溢岸砂体、单期河道及其相互接触关系”两个主要层次开展储层构型精细解剖,构建了三维储层构型模型。基于密闭取心井、水淹层测井解释资料和生产动态数据分析了不同时期的水淹特征和剩余油分布,并通过基于三维构型模型的油藏数值模拟对剩余油分布模式进行验证,最终总结出不同储层构型控制下的剩余油富集模式。结果表明,在河道内,剩余油在顶部、边部、河道间夹层控制部位以下以及仅与低渗溢岸砂连通造成注采不完善的河道内部富集;在河道外,剩余油在河间物性较差的溢岸砂内、注采不完善的溢岸砂末端和孤立砂体内富集。     

水平井压裂储层应力场分布模拟方法

在研究分析水力压裂对储层岩石力学特性参数影响的基础上,提出一种压力储层应力场分布模拟计算方法。通过建立水平井储层原地应力场模型和水力压裂产生人工裂缝诱导应力场模型,并且利用实际的水力压裂测井参数对储层原地应力场和压裂产生裂缝诱导应力场分布进行了模拟计算。模拟计算结果表明,压裂产生人工裂缝会对储层应力场分布造成很大影响;压裂后储层应力主要在裂缝周围得到积累,并且距离裂缝越远,应力值积累越少;压裂生成裂缝长度也会影响储层应力场分布,裂缝越长,裂缝诱导应力场减小越慢。     

Hydro-mechanical coupled analysis of near-wellbore fines migration from unconsolidated reservoirs

Oil or gas production from unconsolidated reservoirs could be hampered by sand migration near the wellbore. This paper presents a numerical investigation of production-induced migration of fine sands towards a wellbore drilled in a gap-graded sediment. The solid–fluid interaction is simulated by coupling the discrete element method and the dynamic fluid mesh. With the merit of DEM and a dynamic mesh, the model is capable of naturally capturing particle movements and spatiotemporal variations of hydraulic properties of the sediment at the pore scale. The results show that fine particles are mobilized by radial flow under an imposed hydraulic gradient, and the increase in the hydraulic gradient causes an increase in the fines production. The microscopic pattern of sand migration is clearly visualized through the simulation. The presence of fine particles affects the process of fines migration through two competing mechanisms. Under a low fine content, fine sands mainly serve as the fines production source, and thus, fines production is enhanced as the fine content increases up to a critical value, beyond which fines production is weakened with a further increase in the fine content since the blocking effect gradually dominates. A barrier layer is likely formed during sand migration due to settling and jamming of fine sands at the throats of pores, as fine sands migrate with the radial flow towards the wellbore. This layer is helpful to slow down sand migration, while it could impede production due to reduced permeability in the affected reservoir.