Mixing of event and pre‐event water in a shallow Entisol in sloping farmland based on isotopic and hydrometric measurements,SW China

Water percolation and flow processes in subsurface geologic media play an important role in determining the water source for plants and the transport of contaminants or nutrients, which is essential for water resource management and the development of measures for pollution mitigation. During June 2013, the dynamics of the rainwater, soil water, subsurface flows and groundwater in a shallow Entisol on sloping farmland were monitored using a hydrometric and isotopic approach. The results showed that effective mixing of rainwater and soil water occurred in hours. The rebound phenomenon of δD profiles in soils showed that most isotope‐depleted rainwater largely bypassed the soil matrix when the water saturation in the soil was high. Preferential‐flow, which was the dominant water movement pattern in the vadose zone, occurred through the whole soil profile, and infrequent piston‐flow was mainly found at 20–40 cm in depth. The interflow in the soil layer, composed of 75.2% rainwater, was only generated when the soil profile had been saturated. Underflow in the fractured mudrock was the dominant flow type in this hillslope, and outflow was dominated by base flow (groundwater flow) with a mean contribution of 76.7%. The generation mechanism of underflow was groundwater ridging, which was superimposed upon preferential‐flow composed mainly of rainwater. The quick mixing process of rainwater and soil water and the rapid movement of the mixture through preferential channels in the study soil, which shows a typical bimodal pore size distribution, can explain the prompt release of pre‐event water in subsurface flow. Water sources of subsurface flows at peak discharge could be affected by the antecedent soil water content, rain characteristics and antecedent groundwater levels. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Application of a coil‐type TDR probe for measuring the volumetric water content in weathered granitic bedrock

As a first step toward describing water flow processes in bedrock, a coil‐type time domain reflectometry (TDR) probe capable of measuring volumetric water content, θ, in weathered bedrock at three depths was prepared. Because the coil‐type TDR probe is large in diameter (19 mm), it can be installed even in highly weathered bedrock more easily and appropriately than conventional TDR probes that consists of two or three rods of small diameter (5‐8 mm). The probe calibrations suggest that the values measured by the probe are very sensitive to changes in θ. Using the calibrated probe together with commercially available profile soil moisture sensors, the θ profile was monitored for 1 year. Even rainfall events with relatively small cumulative rainfall of 15 mm increased the bedrock θ, and the increments were comparable to those in the soil. After the end of the rainfall events, the bedrock θ displayed a more rapid drop than the soil, and varied little during the period of no rainfall. The water storage showed similar tendencies. These observations suggest that the bedrock θ is controlled by clearly distinguishable macropores and micropores within the bedrock. It is concluded that the coil‐type TDR probe is very effective in determining θ in weathered bedrock, and that bedrock, conventionally defined by conducting cone penetration tests and treated as impermeable, does conduct and hold substantial amounts of water, and therefore contribute greatly to hydrological processes in headwater catchments. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Uniform and lateral preferential flows under flood irrigation at field scale

Flood irrigation is globally one of the most used irrigation methods. Typically, not all water that is applied during flood irrigation is consumed by plants or lost to evaporation. Return flow, the portion of applied water from flood irrigation that returns back to streams either via surface or subsurface flow, can constitute a large part of the water balance. Few studies have addressed the connection between vertical and lateral subsurface flows and its potential role in determining return flow pathways due to the difficulty in observing and quantifying these processes at plot or field scale. We employed a novel approach, combining induced polarization, time‐lapse electrical resistivity tomography, and time‐lapse borehole nuclear magnetic resonance, to identify flow paths and quantify changes in soil hydrological conditions under nonuniform application of flood irrigation water. We developed and tested a new method to track the wetting front in the subsurface using the full range of inverted resistivity values. Antecedent soil moisture conditions did not play an important role in preferential flow path activation. More importantly, boundaries between lithological zones in the soil profile were observed to control preferential flow pathways with subsurface run‐off occurring at these boundaries when saturation occurred. Using the new method to analyse time‐lapse resistivity measurements, we were able to track the wetting front and identify subsurface flow paths. Both uniform infiltration and preferential lateral flows were observed. Combining three geophysical methods, we documented the influence of lithology on subsurface flow processes. This study highlights the importance of characterizing the subsurface when the objective is to identify and quantify subsurface return flow pathways under flood irrigation.     

Impact of subsurface rock fragments on runoff and interrill soil loss from cultivated soils

Field and laboratory studies have indicated that rock fragments in the topsoil may have a large impact on soil properties, soil quality, hydraulic, hydrological and erosion processes. In most studies, the rock fragments investigated still remain visible at the soil surface and only properties of these visible rock fragments are used for predicting runoff and soil loss. However, there are indications that rock fragments completely incorporated in the topsoil could also significantly influence the percolation and water distribution in stony soils and therefore, also infiltration, runoff and soil loss rates. Therefore, in this study interrill laboratory experiments with simulated rainfall for 60 min were conducted to assess the influence of subsurface rock fragments incorporated in a disturbed silt loam soil at different depths below the soil surface (i.e. 0.001, 0.01, 0.05 and 0.10 m), on infiltration, surface runoff and interrill erosion processes for small and large rock fragment sizes (i.e. mean diameter 0.04 and 0.20 m, respectively). Although only small differences in infiltration rate and runoff volume are observed between the soil without rock fragments (control) and the one with subsurface rock fragments, considerable differences in total interrill soil loss are observed between the control treatment and both contrasting rock fragments sizes. This is explained by a rapid increase in soil moisture in the areas above the rock fragments and therefore a decrease in topsoil cohesion compared with the control soil profile. The observed differences in runoff volume and interrill soil loss between the control plots and those with subsurface rock fragments is largest after a cumulative rainfall (P_cum) of 11 mm and progressively decreases with increasing P_cum. The results highlight the impacts and complexity of subsurface rock fragments on the production of runoff volume and soil loss and requires their inclusion in process‐based runoff and erosion models. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

裂缝性岩石低频下复电阻率与饱和度关系研究

储层中裂缝的发育影响着油气运移和储存,因此识别裂缝以及得到裂缝性储层的表征参数与物理性质对于预测天然气的产量有重要的意义.本文主要通过实验和数值模拟研究了低频段（100 Hz~1 MHz）内均质岩样和不同裂缝参数的裂缝性岩样的复电阻率频散特性.利用有限元模拟计算简易岩样模型的复电阻率,研究了完全饱和水状态下均质岩样与裂缝岩样复电阻率频散特性的区别.并重点研究了100 Hz、1 kHz和10 kHz下均质岩样以及不同裂缝宽度、密度、倾角岩样含水饱和度S_W与电阻增大率I_R、含水饱和度S_W与介电常数变化率I_ε的变化关系.实验结果显示完全饱含水的情况下裂缝的出现,使得岩样的复电阻率实部降低,复电阻率虚部的幅值减小;不同频率（100 Hz、1 kHz和10 kHz）下I_R-S_W曲线发生分离.裂缝密度和裂缝倾角的增加,导致岩样的复电阻率实部降低,复电阻率虚部的幅值减小;并使得不同频率下的I_R-S_W和I_ε-S_W分离程度变大.讨论了阿尔奇公式中饱和度指数n与系数b以及仿阿尔奇公式中介电饱和度指数n'与系数b'与裂缝参数的关系,说明在高含水饱和度时,导电与介电的幂指数规律基本一致.通过对裂缝性岩石上述参数的研究,为多频复电阻率测井仪的研发提供理论与实验支撑,进而提高裂缝性储层含气性识别以及定量评价含气饱和度的可靠性.

     

Seasonal shifts in the solute ion ratios of vadose zone rock moisture from the Eel River Critical Zone Observatory

One of the greatest challenges in critical zone studies is to document the moisture dynamics, water flux,and solute chemistry of the unsaturated, fractured and weathered bedrock that lies between the soil and groundwater table. The central impediment to quantifying this component of the subsurface is the difficulty associated with direct observations. Here, we report solute chemistry as a function of depth collected over a full year across the shale-derived vadose zone of the Eel River Critical Zone Observatory using a set of novel sub-horizontal wellbores,referred to as the vadose zone monitoring system. The results of this first geochemical glimpse into the deep vadose zone indicate a dynamic temporal and depth-resolved structure. Major cation concentrations reflect seasonal changes in precipitation and water saturation, and normalized ratios span the full range of values reported for the world's largest rivers.     

Evaluating soil moisture estimation from ground-penetrating radar hyperbola fitting with respect to a systematic time-domain reflectometry data collection in a boreal podzolic agricultural field

The upper 30 cm of the soil profile, which hosts the majority of the root biomass, can be considered as the shallow agricultural root zone of most temperate crops. The electromagnetic wave velocity in the soil obtained from reflection hyperbolas in ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data can be used to estimate soil moisture (SM). Finding shallow hyperbolas in a radargram and minimizing the subjective error associated with the hyperbola fitting are the main challenges in this approach. Nevertheless, we were motivated by the recent improvements of hyperbola fitting algorithms, which can reduce the subjective error and processing time. To overcome the difficulty of finding very shallow hyperbolas, we applied the hyperbola fitting method to reflections ranging from 27- to 50-cm depth using a 500-MHz centre-frequency GPR and compared the estimated moisture with vertically installed, 30-cm-long time-domain reflectometry (TDR) sensors. We also compared TDR and GPR sample areas in a 2-D plane using different GPR survey types and different hyperbola depths. SM measured with TDR and GPR were not significantly different according to Mann–Whitney's test. Our analyses showed that a root mean square error of 0.03 m³ m⁻³ was found between the two methods. In conclusion, the proposed method might be suitable to estimate SM with an acceptable accuracy within the root zone if the soil profile is fairly uniform within the application depth range.     

饱水和排水过程中岩石电阻率各向异性特征的电阻率成像法研究

从电阻率的角度研究岩石裂隙介质的各向异性特征是一种方便而有效的方法,但多限于空间单个点上的测量数据分析.通过在砂岩岩样上的饱水与排水实验以及同步进行的高密度电阻率成像监测,探讨了应用高密度电阻率成像法获得图像研究岩石各向异性特征的可能性,分析了饱水与排水过程中岩石电阻率在不同方向上的响应特性.结果表明,电阻率成像法在分析岩石裂隙介质的各向异性方面具有多方向成像和动态监测的优点,可以通过对不同方向上获得的电阻率图像的分析,提取出岩石沉积结构的空间分布模式,清晰地反映出岩石在饱水和排水过程中电阻率变化空间分布模式的各向异性特征.     

Snowmelt‐driven macropore flow and soil saturation in a semiarid forest

Lateral subsurface flow is generally assumed to occur as a result of the development of a saturated zone above a low‐permeability interface such as at the soil–bedrock contact, and it is often augmented by macropore flow. Our objective was to evaluate the development of lateral subsurface flow and soil saturation at a semiarid ponderosa pine forest in New Mexico with respect to the conceptual model of saturation building above the soil–bedrock contact. At this site, we have long‐term observations of the water budget components, including lateral flow. A 1·5 m deep by 7 m long trench was constructed to observe lateral subsurface flow and development of saturation directly. Our observations are based on flow resulting from a melting snowdrift. The edge of the drift was about 7 m upslope from the trench. Lateral subsurface flow only occurred from root macropores in the Bt soil horizon. Saturation developed and grew outward from flowing root macropores, rather than growing upward from the soil–bedrock interface. This macropore‐centred saturation resulted in a highly heterogeneous distribution of water content until enough macropores began flowing and individual macropore saturated zones grew large enough to coalesce and saturate large volumes of the soil. Our observations are based on one snowmelt event and a relatively short hillslope flow path, and thus do not represent a full range of hydrologic conditions. Nevertheless, the observed behaviour did not conform to the traditional model of soil–bedrock control of saturation and lateral flow. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Modeling Noble Gas Transport and Detection for The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

Detonation gases released by an underground nuclear test include trace amounts of ¹³³Xe and ³⁷Ar. In the context of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, On Site Inspection Protocol, such gases released from or sampled at the soil surface could be used to indicate the occurrence of an explosion in violation of the treaty. To better estimate the levels of detectability from an underground nuclear test (UNE), we developed mathematical models to evaluate the processes of ¹³³Xe and ³⁷Ar transport in fractured rock. Two models are developed respectively for representing thermal and isothermal transport. When the thermal process becomes minor under the condition of low temperature and low liquid saturation, the subsurface system is described using an isothermal and single-gas-phase transport model and barometric pumping becomes the major driving force to deliver ¹³³Xe and ³⁷Ar to the ground surface. A thermal test is simulated using a nonisothermal and two-phase transport model. In the model, steam production and bubble expansion are the major processes driving noble gas components to ground surface. After the temperature in the chimney drops below boiling, barometric pumping takes over the role as the major transport process.     

Fracture control of ground water flow and water chemistry in a rock aquitard

There are few studies on the hydrogeology of sedimentary rock aquitards although they are important controls in regional ground water flow systems. We formulate and test a three-dimensional (3D) conceptual model of ground water flow and hydrochemistry in a fractured sedimentary rock aquitard to show that flow dynamics within the aquitard are more complex than previously believed. Similar conceptual models, based on regional observations and recently emerging principles of mechanical stratigraphy in heterogeneous sedimentary rocks, have previously been applied only to aquifers, but we show that they are potentially applicable to aquitards. The major elements of this conceptual model, which is based on detailed information from two sites in the Maquoketa Formation in southeastern Wisconsin, include orders of magnitude contrast between hydraulic diffusivity (K/S(s)) of fractured zones and relatively intact aquitard rock matrix, laterally extensive bedding-plane fracture zones extending over distances of over 10 km, very low vertical hydraulic conductivity of thick shale-rich intervals of the aquitard, and a vertical hydraulic head profile controlled by a lateral boundary at the aquitard subcrop, where numerous surface water bodies dominate the shallow aquifer system. Results from a 3D numerical flow model based on this conceptual model are consistent with field observations, which did not fit the typical conceptual model of strictly vertical flow through an aquitard. The 3D flow through an aquitard has implications for predicting ground water flow and for planning and protecting water supplies.     

A mechanism for anomalous decline in radon precursory to an earthquake

Mechanisms for interpreting anomalous decreases in radon in ground water prior to earthquakes are examined with the help of a case study to show that radon potentially is a sensitive tracer of strain changes in the crust preceding an earthquake. The 2003 Chengkung earthquake of magnitude (M) 6.8 on December 10, 2003, was the strongest earthquake near the Chengkung area in eastern Taiwan since 1951. The Antung radon-monitoring station was located 20 km from the epicenter. Approximately 65 d prior to the 2003 Chengkung earthquake, precursory changes in radon concentration in ground water were observed. Specifically, radon decreased from a background level of 780 pCi/L to a minimum of 330 pCi/L. The Antung hot spring is situated in a fractured block of tuffaceous sandstone surrounded by ductile mudstone. Given these geological conditions, we hypothesized that the dilation of brittle rock mass occurred at a rate faster than the recharge of pore water and gas saturation developed in newly created cracks preceding the earthquake. Radon partitioning into the gas phase may explain the anomalous decrease of radon precursory to the 2003 Chengkung earthquake. To support the hypothesis, vapor-liquid, two-phase radon-partitioning experiments were conducted at formation temperature (60 degrees C) using formation brine from the Antung hot spring. Experimental data indicated that the decrease in radon required a gas saturation of 10% developed in rock cracks. The observed decline in radon can be correlated with the increase in gas saturation and then with the volumetric strain change for a given fracture porosity.     

Using fluidized bed and flume experiments to quantify cohesion development from aging and drainage

Temporal variations in soil erosion resistance are often the result of decreased soil cohesion due to physical disruption followed by a regain of soil strength through a process called aging, stabilization or consolidation. The goal of this study was to quantify changes in soil cohesion due to aging and subsurface hydrologic condition using a fluidized bed method. A flume experiment was also used to verify that findings from the fluidized bed experiment translated into measurable changes in soil erodibility. Tests were performed on three different soils (a Miami soil, a Cecil soil and Crosby–Miami soil complex). Changes in soil cohesion due to aging and drainage state were successfully detected by the fluidized bed technique. For all soils tested, cohesion developed in a two‐stage process where an increase in cohesion with aging duration immediately after the soil was rewetted, was followed by a decrease in cohesion which often started after 24 h of aging. When soils were aged at field capacity, the resulting cohesion measured by the fluidized bed method was on average 3.13 times higher than that measured when aging was performed at saturation. Trends in soil rill erodibility K_r with aging duration measured in the flume experiment were consistent with the two‐stage pattern observed in soil cohesion estimates but the legacy effect of suction applied at field capacity faded after 72 h of aging. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Estimating Pesticide Attenuation From Water Dating and the Ratio of Metabolite to Parent Compound

Although pesticides are primarily degraded in the topsoil, significant attenuation can be expected in groundwater systems where the transit time of pesticides usually are orders of magnitude longer than in the soil. Because degradation and transport processes in the subsurface take place at time scales of months to years or even decades, direct measurements of natural attenuation are hampered by practical and logistical limitations (for instance the limited duration of sampling or a correct estimation of the pesticide flux into groundwater). Indirect methods such as measuring the changes in the ratio of degradation product to parent compound as a function of transit time in the aquifer, along a flow line provide a possible alternative. This paper presents a simple mathematical formulation of the relationship between transit time in the subsurface and changes in that ratio, and allows estimating the transformation rate of both parent compound and degradation product. The applicability of the method is illustrated in a case study investigating atrazine attenuation in a fractured sandstone aquifer.     

利用含可控裂缝人工岩样研究裂缝密度对各向异性的影响

利用新方法制作出含可控裂缝的双孔隙人工砂岩物理模型,具有与天然岩石更为接近的矿物成分、孔隙结构和胶结方式,其中裂缝密度、裂缝尺寸和裂缝张开度等裂缝参数可以控制以得到实验所需要的裂缝参数,岩样具有真实的孔隙和裂缝空间并可以在不同饱和流体状态下研究流体性质对于裂缝介质性质的影响.本次实验制作出一组具有不同裂缝密度的含裂缝人工岩样,对岩样利用SEM扫描电镜分析可以看到真实的孔隙结构和符合我们要求的裂缝参数,岩样被加工成八面棱柱以测量不同方向上弹性波传播的速度,用0.5 MHz的换能器使用透射法测量在饱和空气和饱和水条件下各个样品不同方向上的纵横波速度,并得出纵横波速度、横波分裂系数和纵横波各向异性强度受裂缝密度和饱和流体的影响.研究发现流体对于纵波速度和纵波各向异性强度的影响较强,而横波速度、横波分裂系数和横波各向异性强度受饱和流体的影响不大,但是对裂缝密度的变化更敏感.     

Seismic refraction traveltime inversion for static corrections in a glaciated shield rock environment: a case study

A traveltime inversion technique is applied to model the upper ∼40 m of the subsurface of a glaciated shield rock area in order to calculate static corrections for a multi-azimuth multi-depth walk-away vertical seismic profile and a surface seismic reflection profile. First break information from a seismic refraction survey is used in conjunction with a ray-tracing program and an iterative damped least-squares inversion algorithm to create a two-dimensional model of the subsurface. The layout of the seismic survey required crooked seismic lines and substantial gaps in the source and receiver coverage to be accounted for. Additionally, there is substantial topographical variation and a complex geology consisting of glaciofluvial sediment and glacial till overlying a crystalline bedrock. The resolution and reliability of the models is measured through a parameter perturbation technique, normalized χ² values, root means square traveltime residuals and comparison to known geology.     

Storm runoff processes and subcatchment characteristics in a new zealand hill country catchment

The quickflow responses of six subcatchment areas in a small hill country catchment in the Craigieburn Range, South Island, New Zealand, were compared for a range of storm sizes, rainfall intensities and antecedent wetness conditions. Topography and soil characteristics suggested that all subcatchments would receive subsurface stormflow input, but that some would receive larger saturation overland flow inputs than others. Quickflow yields and response ratios were positively correlated with storm size and antecedent wetness conditions in the subcatchment most suited to producing saturation overland flow. In subcatchments more likely to be dominated by subsurface flow, quickflow yields and response ratios were positively correlated with storm size, but were either not correlated, or negatively correlated, with antecedent wetness. Quickflow responses were either not significantly or negatively correlated with rainfall intensity variables. Quickflow from the subcatchment most suited to produce saturation overland flow providing an increasing proportion of total catchment quickflow in larger storms and as antecedent conditions became wetter. Subcatchment responses varied greatly in space and time and there was less pattern to the variation than had been expected. Where topographic and pedologic conditions permit substantial responses to storm rainfall by both saturation overland flow and subsurface stormflow, simple topographic and soil indicators may not be useful guides to the relative importance of runoff mechanisms, or to the identification of runoff-source areas.     

Field data and flow system response in clay (vertisol) shale terrain,north central Texas,USA

The water budget in clay shale terrain is controlled by a complex interaction between the vertisol soil layer, the underlying fractured rock, land use, topography, and seasonal trends in rainfall and evapotranspiration. Rainfall, runoff, lateral flow, soil moisture, and groundwater levels were monitored over an annual recharge cycle. Four phases of soil–aquifer response were noted over the study period: (1) dry‐season cracking of soils; (2) runoff initiation, lateral flow and aquifer recharge; (3) crack closure and down‐slope movement of subsurface water, with surface seepage; (4) a drying phase. Surface flow predominated within the watershed (25% of rainfall), but lateral flow through the soil zone continued for most of the year and contributed 11% of stream flow through surface seepage. Actual flow through the fractured shale makes up a small fraction of the water budget but does appear to influence surface seepage by its effect on valley‐bottom storage. When the valley soil storage is full, lateral flow exits onto the valley‐bottom surface as seasonal seeps. Well response varied with depth and hillslope position. FLOWTUBE model results and regional recharge estimates are consistent with an aquifer recharge of 1·6% of annual precipitation calculated from well heights and specific yield of the shale aquifer. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.