青藏高原湖泊Mg~(2+)、Ca~(2+)和Mg/Ca盐度指示意义的初步分析

总结了青藏高原地区400多个湖泊湖水的Mg2+、Ca2+和Mg/Ca等水化指标与湖水盐度的相关关系,以及这种关系随着湖水变化(不同采样时间和采样点以及自然蒸发)而产生的变化规律.结果表明:青藏高原湖泊湖水的Mg2+浓度与盐度具有较为稳定的正相关关系,而Ca2+和Mg/Ca与盐度的相关性较弱.在对于某一特定水化学类型的湖泊,一般碳酸盐型湖泊的Mg2+、Ca2+以及Mg/Ca等指标与盐度均没有明显的相关性;硫酸盐型湖泊中Mg2+浓度和盐度呈现较高的正相关关系,而Ca2+以及Mg/Ca与盐度的相关性仍很弱;而在氯化物型湖泊中,Mg2+浓度与盐度呈更高的正相关性,Ca2+浓度也与盐度呈一定的正相关性,Mg/Ca这一指标与盐度的相关性依然很弱.而对某一特定湖泊,在不同演化阶段或不同的采样地点,Mg2+浓度与盐度仍然保持明显的正相关关系,而Ca2+以及Mg/Ca与盐度的相关性仍然不稳定或很弱.在青藏高原作古环境重建应用的时候,湖水Mg2+浓度是古盐度一个较好的转换指标,而Ca2+以及Mg/Ca的古盐度指示意义相对较弱.     

大型浅水湖泊--巢湖内源磷负荷的时空变化特征及形成机制

通过对大型浅水富营养化湖泊--巢湖湖水、间隙水以及沉积物中磷形态及吸附行为时空变化的研究发现,富营养化较为严重的巢湖西区湖水、间隙水中的正磷酸盐(orthophosphate,Ortho-P)、总磷(total phosphorus,TP)显著高于东湖区,这与西湖区有大量的营养物质通过入湖河道输入有密切关系;此外水柱中颗粒态磷(particulate phosphorus,PP)亦有同样的空间分布规律,且PP的含量与微囊藻的生物量呈显著正相关关系,表明微囊藻在吸收与储藏磷方面比其它藻类更具优势.夏季浮游藻类爆发性增长引起湖水pH的升高以及对磷的大量需求是促使沉积物中的磷(特别是Fe-P)向间隙水中释放的关键因子.沉积物TP、磷形态及吸附行为的空间变化及统计分析的结果表明,沉积物中磷含量的空间异质性与人类活动、土壤地球化学背景及矿物组成等的差异有密切关系.此外,即使沉积物磷含量相同,Fe-P含量的增加将会带来更高的磷释放风险.     

蒙新高原湖泊水质状况及变化特征

蒙新高原位于干旱/半干旱气候区,区内湖泊众多,但多为盐湖和咸水湖.近年来,由于湖泊咸化、萎缩甚至干涸的过程加快,区内多数湖泊水资源严重短缺,湖泊及其流域的生态环境遭遇巨大破坏.本文选取蒙新地区11个淡水和微咸水湖泊,通过对不同区域和不同类型的湖泊水质状况分析和对比研究,揭示蒙新地区湖泊水质现状及其变化特征与原因.结果表明,新疆地区湖泊类型多样,湖水阴、阳离子涵盖了各种水化学类型,而内蒙湖泊均为钠组-氯化物型.不同湖泊间湖水离子浓度和矿化度差异较大,湖水交换是蒙新地区湖泊水体矿化度的主要影响因素;与1988年相比,哈纳斯湖、阜康天池和赛里木湖等山地湖泊矿化度无明显变化或呈下降趋势,反映了区域气候变化特征;柴窝堡湖和红碱淖湖水矿化度快速升高,而达里诺尔水体矿化度增幅较小,其差异反映了修筑水库、地下水开采等人类活动在湖泊水环境变化中的不同作用.近50年来,乌伦古湖、博斯腾湖、吉力湖和乌梁素海水体矿化度波动升高,尤其近年来矿化度升高趋势加快,反映了流域内工农业等人类活动增强而导致入湖污染物增加以及气候干旱引起湖水浓缩两个方面所产生的叠加效应.     

中国西部湖泊水体δD与δ18O的空间变化特征及其影响因素

湖泊水体的氢氧同位素(δD、δ~(18)O)是研究区域大气降水和水文循环的重要手段之一,目前对其的研究主要以单一湖泊为主.以2016年夏季在中国西部地区采集的33个湖泊水体为研究对象,分析其氢氧同位素的变化特征,并结合当地夏季大气降水、湖水盐度、海拔与纬度等资料,探讨中国西部33个湖泊水体δD、δ~(18)O的空间分布特征及其影响因素.结果表明:33个湖泊水体的δD与δ18O组成主要受控于大气降水,但受蒸发分馏的影响,湖水线的斜率与截距低于大气水线.湖泊水体与夏季大气降水氢氧同位素存在明显的空间分异,这种分异与湖水盐度无关,主要受到区域降水水汽来源不同的影响.青藏高原南北两侧由于水汽来源及蒸发条件的不同,使得青藏高原湖泊水体的氢氧同位素呈现出"北高南低"的特点,新疆西北部受西风影响,湖泊水体的氢氧同位素明显偏负,内蒙古及邻近地区受东南季风的影响,湖水受到蒸发分馏作用使其δD与δ~(18)O偏正.不同区域湖泊水体的氘盈余(d_excess)反映了不同的水汽源地的湿度状况而不能指示湖水的蒸发状况.受降水影响,青藏高原地区湖水氢氧同位素组成与海拔高度呈负相关,与纬度呈正相关.     

云南高原湖泊抚仙湖酵母菌空间分布及其与环境因子的关系

开展高原湖泊酵母菌多样性研究,能够为湖泊生态系统的保护提供理论依据,并为其中特殊酵母菌资源的开发及利用奠定基础.结合经典分类法及26S rDNA D1/D2区域序列分析,对分离自云南抚仙湖湖水中的553株酵母菌进行系统分类,运用SPSS 19.0软件比较不同区域酵母菌多样性,并采用多元统计方法定量分析酵母菌空间分布特征及其与理化因子之间的关系.结果显示:抚仙湖水体中分布22属52种和1个潜在新分类单元的酵母菌.理化因子差异性分析表明,北沿岸区总有机碳浓度明显高于南沿岸区.Pearson分析则表明,抚仙湖湖水总有机碳浓度与酵母菌丰度呈显著正相关.另外,酵母菌-环境冗余分析显示,抚仙湖酵母菌种群结构与总有机碳浓度存在明显相关.研究显示云南抚仙湖酵母菌资源比较丰富,人类活动对其中酵母菌空间分布具有一定影响.     

洱海湖滨带冬季水鸟的水质指示作用

水鸟在物种或群落水平上可以对湿地营养状态有所响应,预警生态系统有害的改变.以大型淡水湖泊洱海为例,基于2015年2月沿岸17个观察点的冬季水鸟调查与水质同步监测,研究小(Podiceps ruficollis)、白骨顶(Fulica atra)和黑水鸡(Gallinula chloropus)密度对沿岸水体中总磷和总氮浓度的响应关系.结果发现白骨顶和小密度均与总氮浓度呈显著正相关,也均与总磷浓度呈显著正相关;黑水鸡密度与总氮和总磷浓度无显著相关性.结果表明,水鸟可以在物种水平上对洱海湖滨带水中营养物质变化有所响应,也强调了根据具体指示物种的生态学习性选择水鸟指示物种尤为重要.白骨顶和小在更大空间和时间尺度上的水质指示作用有待于更多湖泊或水库水体的长期相关研究.     

藏南普莫雍错流域水体离子组成与空间分布及其环境意义

对藏南普莫雍错湖水及其周围人湖河流水体进行了离子化学成分分析,对部分湖泊和河流水样作氧同位紊分析.结果显示,不同入湖河流离子组成与湖水本身离子组成有较大差异.湖水的主要离子组合是Mg2 -Ca2 -HCO3-SO42-,而主要补给河流加曲为Ca2 -Mg2 -HCO3-.加曲人湖河口2m水深以内水化学性质差异大,湖泊其他地区差异小.加曲对河口三角洲之上湖水影响显著.其他河流对河口处湖水影响较小.Gibbs图显示湖水离子的组成主要与流域内的岩石风化有关.离子比例和三角图分析说明控制入湖河水离子主要过程是碳酸盐、黄铁矿和硅酸盐风化.湖泊与河流水体离子的组成差异较大,原因可能是蒸发浓缩导致的CaCO3的沉淀.其结果有助于正确理解湖泊沉积碳酸盐的环境指示意义.     

冰封期达里诺尔湖同位素与营养盐分布特征及关系的定量分析

以内蒙古高原的达里诺尔湖为研究对象,对其在冰封期湖水不同相态下总氮(TN)、总磷(TP)浓度以及氢、氧同位素比值的分布特征和定量关系进行初步研究.结果表明:1)在冰封期,达里诺尔湖水体中营养盐的平均浓度相对较高,已远超过国家Ⅴ类水质标准.水体中TN、TP浓度均大于其在对应冰体中的浓度,均值分别是对应冰体中的9.91、3.11倍,说明低温冷冻过程对达里诺尔湖水体中的氮、磷具有浓缩效应.而通过与非冰封期的对比发现,湖冰的排氮效应强于磷.2)冰封期由于结冰过程中同位素热力学分馏明显,加之贡格尔河的入流补给,使得达里诺尔湖冰体中的氢、氧同位素比值远高于水体中的比值,同时,随冰层的加深,同位素逐渐偏重.3)冰封期达里诺尔湖水体及冰体中,同位素比值与营养盐浓度均呈显著负相关,水体的相关性较冰体要好,在冰层中,随着冰层的加深相关性越明显.利用SPSS统计软件分析发现同位素比值与营养盐浓度的相关关系显著,水体中最大相关系数达到0.991,冰体中达到0.988;氢同位素(D)与TN、TP浓度的关系式分别为:TN=-0.2825δD-6.0083和TP=-0.0805δD-1.2395,这为研究湖泊营养盐的时空变化规律提供新的手段和理论.     

藏南沉错钻孔硅藻组合与湖水古盐度定量恢复

通过藏南沉错钻孔化石硅藻组合研究, 应用青藏高原硅藻-湖水电导率转换函数, 对沉错最近300年来湖泊古盐度进行了定量恢复. 推导的电导率变化与近代湖泊水位变化记录有明显的负相关关系, 表明沉错湖水盐度可以反映大气有效湿度的变化. 古盐度的重建揭示了几次重要水文事件: 小冰期最后一次冷期(约1845~1885AD), 湖水明显淡化, 反映了冷湿气候组合特点; 20世纪60年代以来, 湖水盐度呈急剧增高趋势, 也是近300年来盐度最高、增加幅度最大时期, 湖水的咸化反映的有效湿度降低与近几十年来温度的不断上升而导致的蒸发量的增加有关.     

长沙桃子湖湖水稳定同位素的变化及其影响因素

基于对长沙桃子湖湖水和降水中稳定同位素的监测数据,分析了湖水中稳定同位素的变化特征及其与降水和蒸发的关系,旨在了解湿润气候条件下小型湖泊的湖水稳定同位素的变化规律,揭示降水和蒸发对湖水稳定同位素变化的具体影响.在时间变化上,湖水稳定同位素具有明显的季节变化,湖水中δ¹⁸O的最大值出现在春季,最小值出现在冬季;湖水中过量氘的最大值出现在5-6月,最小值出现在9-10月.在空间变化上,桃子湖不同深度和不同空间点上的湖水中δ¹⁸O差异很小,说明湖水基本处于均匀混合状态.当5日累计降水量≥ 20.3 mm时,湖水中δ¹⁸O的变化与5日累计降水量之间的负相关关系非常显著,但与5日累计蒸发量之间呈弱正相关;湖水中过量氘的变化与5日累计降水量之间无显著相关关系,但与5日累计蒸发量之间呈弱的相关性;相比于平均湖水蒸发线,该降水段的蒸发线斜率和截距均有明显增加.当累计降水量<20.3 mm时,湖水中δ¹⁸O的变化与5日累计降水量之间的相关程度明显降低,但与5日累计蒸发量之间的相关程度则明显提高;湖水中过量氘的变化与5日累计降水量以及与5日累计蒸发量之间的相关关系显著提高;相比于平均湖水蒸发线,该组蒸发线的斜率和截距均有明显减小.     

A Monte Carlo study of rainfall forecasting with a stochastic model

A procedure for short-term rainfall forecasting in real-time is developed and a study of the role of sampling on forecast ability is conducted. Ground level rainfall fields are forecasted using a stochastic space-time rainfall model in state-space form. Updating of the rainfall field in real-time is accomplished using a distributed parameter Kalman filter to optimally combine measurement information and forecast model estimates. The influence of sampling density on forecast accuracy is evaluated using a series of a simulated rainfall events generated with the same stochastic rainfall model. Sampling was conducted at five different network spatial densities. The results quantify the influence of sampling network density on real-time rainfall field forecasting. Statistical analyses of the rainfall field residuals illustrate improvement in one hour lead time forecasts at higher measurement densities.     

Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration Aims And Scope

正This journal is established by the Institute of Engineering Mechanics(IEM),China Earthquake Administration,to promote scientific exchange between Chinese and foreign scientists and engineers so as to improve the theory and practice of earthquake hazards mitigation,preparedness,and recovery.To accomplish this purpose,the journal aims to attract a balanced number of papers between Chinese and     

Solute concentrations in the lower niger river and the source rock contribution

Water quality analyses for the Niger River for the 1980/81 hydrological year are presented. The samples were collected from the main river at Lokoja, and from two main tributaries, the Kaduna and the Benue Rivers. Different water types were distinguished by the concentrations of major ions. The type Ca > Na > Mg > K - HCO₃ > SO₄ > Cl was represented at all stations during at least part of the year. Chloride was found to dominate the sulphate ion in the Kaduna and Niger, while the Benue maintained a higher concentration of sulphate relative to chloride all year round. Distinct patterns of seasonal variation in the ion concentrations were observed, particularly for the samples collected at Lokoja. Low ion concentrations were prominent during periods of high discharge, while low flow periods coincided with high dissolved ion concentrations. The contribution of rainwater to the total dissolved solids in the river waters was assessed indirectly using rainwater chemistry data from the Gulf of Guinea. The estimated rainwater contribution to the Lower Niger amounts to 5.15 mg 1^?1. Geochemical weathering calculations involving reactions of the four major minerals of granitic rocks - anorthite, biotite, albite, and K-feldspar - with carbon dioxide and water, can account for the average water composition of the Lower Niger. The proportion of the ionic components was also related to the occurrence of the respective element in the minerals.     

Scenario predictions for potential near-field and far-field earthquakes affecting Hong Kong

Historical earthquakes noted in the written records of the South China region, including Hong Kong, are not well delineated along identified prominent fault sources. Despite the lack of any definitive, localised trend in the spatial distribution of seismic activity in the region, there does appear to be some major disparity in the seismic activity rates (especially for large magnitude earthquakes) between the near-field and the far-field regions of Hong Kong. Despite this observation, previous studies of the regional seismic activity and seismic ground motion hazard (the latter using a probabilistic seismic hazard assessment, PSHA) have considered very broad source zone regions, in which uniform levels of seismic activity have been assumed. The present paper further scrutinises this broad source zone (BSZ) approach by adopting a novel expanding circular disc (ECD) method to determine the rates of earthquake recurrence. Such a method is intended to counter-check previously developed models by determining earthquake scenario events in terms of magnitude–distance (M–R) pairs or combinations, having defined values of average return period. Unlike the BSZ approach, the ECD method specifically accounts for the supposed variations in the seismic activity rates between events in the near-field and the far-field of Hong Kong.The form of the developed method is particularly suited to the determination of design-level earthquake ground motions for bedrock sites, since it assumes a directionally-independent attenuation model as described in the companion paper. It is found that, whilst the BSZ approach may indicate the overall average levels of hazard that are representative of the South China region as a whole, it does not capture the large disparity in seismic activity rates between near-field and far-field events. This important feature is expected to have a significant impact upon engineering assessments of the seismic safety of structures in Hong Kong and elsewhere in the South China region. For example, it is found that for events with M≥6, the seismic activity rate (normalised by time and area) in the very far-field is around 3.5 times larger than in the near-field and medium-field of Hong Kong. The resulting design M-R combinations, covering a range of return periods from 70 to 2500 years, are limited, for very long return periods and for distant events, by the maximum credible earthquake (MCE) magnitude. Intensive research to determine this seismic hazard parameter is recommended, in order to refine further the results of the ECD analysis, which presently conservatively assumes the MCE to range between M=6 in the near-field of Hong Kong to M=8 in the very far-field, at distances greater than 280 km from Hong Kong.     

Depositional ages and characteristics of Middle–Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous lacustrine deposits in southeastern Mongolia

Lower Cretaceous lacustrine oil shales are widely distributed in southeastern Mongolia. Due to the high organic carbon content of oil shale, many geochemical studies and petroleum exploration have been conducted. Although most of the oil shales are considered to be Early Cretaceous in age, a recent study reveals that some were deposited in the Middle Jurassic. The present study aims at establishing depositional ages and characteristics of the Jurassic and Cretaceous lacustrine deposits in Mongolia. The Lower Cretaceous Shinekhudag Formation is about 250 m thick and composed of alternating beds of shale and dolomite. The Middle Jurassic Eedemt Formation is about 150 m thick and composed of alternating beds of shale, dolomitic marl, and siltstone. The alternations of shale and dolomite in both formations were formed by lake level changes, reflecting precipitation changes. Shales were deposited in the center of a deep lake during highstand, while dolomites were formed by primary precipitation during lowstand. Based on the radiometric age dating, the Shinekhudag Formation was deposited between 123.8 ±2.0 Ma and 118.5 ±0.9 Ma of the early Aptian. The Eedemt Formation was deposited at around 165–158 Ma of Callovian–Oxfordian. The calculated sedimentation rate of the Shinekhudag Formation is between 4.7 ±2.6 cm/ky and 10.0 ±7.6 cm/ky. Shales in the Shinekhudag Formation show micrometer‐scale lamination, consisting of algal organic matter and detrital clay mineral couplets. Given the average thickness of micro‐laminae and calculated sedimentation rate, the micro‐lamination is most likely of varve origin. Both Middle–Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous lacustrine oil shales were deposited in intracontinental basins in the paleo‐Asian continent. Tectonic processes and basin evolution basically controlled the deposition of these oil shales. In addition, enhanced precipitation under humid climate during the early Aptian and the Callovian–Oxfordian was another key factor inducing the widespread oil shale deposition in Mongolia.     

THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE SOLUTION OF THE INFILTRATION PROBLEM

ABSTRACT

The one-dimensional transient downward entry of water in unsaturated soils is investigated theoretically. The mathematical equation describing the infiltration process is derived by combining Darcy's dynamic equation of motion with the continuity and thermodynamic state equations adjusted for the unsaturated flow conditions. The resulting equation together with the corresponding initial and boundary conditions constitues a mathematical initial boundary value problem requiring the solution of a nonlinear partial differential equation of the parabolic type. The volumetric water content is taken as the dependent variable and the time and the position along the vertical direction are taken as the independent variables. The governing equation is of such nature that a solution exists for t > 0 and is uniquely determined if two relationships are defined, together with the specified state of the system, at the initial time t = 0 and at the two boundaries. The two required relations are those of pressure versus permeability and pressure versus volumetric water content.

Since the partial differential equation has strong non-linear terms, a discrete solution is obtained by approximating the derivatives with finite-differences at discrete mesh points in the solution domain and integrated for the corresponding initial and boundary conditions. The use of an implicit difference scheme is employed in order to generate a system of simultaneous non-linear equations that has to be solved for each time increment. For n mesh points the two boundary conditions provide two equations and the repetition of the recurrence formula provides n—2 equations, the total being n equations for each time increment. The solution of the system is obtained by matrix inversion and particularly with a back-substitution technique. The FORTRAN statements used for obtaining the solution with an electronic digital computer (IBM 704) are presented together with the input data.

Analysis of the errors involved in the numerical solution is made and the stability and convergence of the solution of the approximate difference equation to that of the differential equation is investigated. The method applied is that of making a Fourier series expansion of a whole line of errors and then following the progress of the general term of the series expansion and also the behavior of each constituent harmonic. The errors (forming a continuous function of points in an abstract Banach space) are represented by vectors with the Fourier coefficients constituting a second Banach space. The amplification factor of the difference equation is shown to be always less than unity which guarantees the stability of the employed implicit recurrence scheme.

Experiments conducted on a vertical column packed uniformly with very fine sand, show a satisfactory agreement between the theoretically and experimentally obtained values. Many experimental results are shown in an attempt to explain the infiltration phenomenon with emphasis on the shape and movement of the wet front, and the effects of the degree of compaction, initial water content and deaired water on the infiltration rate.     

Late Permian post‐ophiolitic trondhjemites from Central Iran: a mark of subduction role in growth of Paleozoic continental crust

Late Permian trondhjemites in the Anarak area occur as stocks and dykes, which cross cut the Anarak ophiolite and its overlying metasedimentary rocks, and are exposed along the northern Anarak east–west main faults. These leucocratic intrusive bodies have enclaves of all ophiolitic units and metamorphic rocks. They are composed of amphibole, plagioclase (oligoclase), quartz, zircon and muscovite. Secondary minerals are chlorite (pycnochlorite), epidote, albite, magnetite and calcite. Whole‐rock major‐ and trace‐element analyses reveal that they are characterized by high SiO ₂ (67.8–71.0 wt%), Al ₂ O ₃ (14.9–17.1 wt%) and Na ₂ O (5.3–8.6 wt%), low K ₂ O (0.1–1.5 wt%; average: 0.8 wt%), low Rb/Sr ratio (0.01–0.40; average: 0.09), low Y (3–6 ppm), negative Ti, Nb and Ta anomalies, slightly negative or positive Eu anomaly, LREE enrichment and fractionated HREE. These rocks present 2 to 40 times enrichment in inclined chondrite‐normalized REE patterns. Geochemical characteristics of the Anarak trondhjemites all reflect melting of a mafic protolith at more than 10 kbar. The field evidence and whole‐rock chemistry reveal that these rocks have been crystallized from magmas derived from melting of subducted Anarak oceanic crust. This study reveals that melting of garnet amphibolite was an important element of continent formation in the study area.