Separation of multi-component NRM: A general method

A method is presented which can successfully isolate components of remanent magnetization having intermediate relative stability in a single rock sample which contains any number of remanence components with overlapping coercivity or blocking temperature spectra. The approach consists of analysis of the path swept out by the vector destroyed during a detailed alternating field or thermal demagnetization run. The point of intersection determined for any two neighboring great circle segments identified in such a difference vector path defines the direction of such a component. Samples cored from a fragment of a Jurassic pillow basalt, shown to contain several components of magnetization, serve to illustrate the utility of the method for the case when the Zijderveld approach is unsuccessful.     

Early and late Paleozoic remagnetization of the Cambrian Peerless Formation,Colorado

The Upper Cambrian Peerless Formation in central Colorado contains two secondary components of magnetization. The dominant component was removed during initial AF demagnetization of specimens whereas a weaker component was removed during subsequent thermal demagnetization. IRM acquisition experiments suggest that the dominant component has low coercivity whereas the weaker component has high coercivity. The latter component has southeasterly and shallow directions and the corresponding pole position is located at 40.0°N, 134.5°E. The high coercivity, blocking temperatures over 600°C, and petrographic evidence suggest this component resides in diagenetic hematite. The magnetization is interpreted as a CRM acquired in the late Paleozoic. The low coercivity component directions fall on a great circle that passes through the modern field direction and two modes at 107°E, +10° and 287°E, −10°. This component is interpreted as a vector sum of two antipodal CRMs and a modern VRM. The pole position (10°N, 150°E) suggests acquisition in the early Paleozoic and the remanence resides either in maghemite or in diagenetic magnetite.     

Deformation and paleomagnetism

We may use tectonic structures to confirm the primary age of a paleomagnetic remanence component but only if we know how to undo the natural strain history. It is normally insufficient to untilt fold limbs, as in the original version of Graham's Fold Test. One may need to remove also the bulk or local strain and account for strain heterogeneities, achieved by grain-strain and the more elusive intergranular flow. Most important, one must know the sequence of strains and tilts that occurred through geological history because the order of these noncommutative events critically affects the final orientation of the remanence component.In many non-metamorphic rocks, strain-rotation of a remanence component approximates a simple formula, although the actual rotation mechanism is complex. This simple, passive line approximation is confirmed experimentally for strains up to 45% oblate shortening. The passive line hypothesis has permitted successful paleomagnetic restorations in several natural case studies.Experimental deformation of samples with multicomponent remanences shows that differential stresses above a threshold value near 25 MPa selectively remove components with coercivities <25mT, due to domain wall rearrangements in large multidomain magnetite grains. Higher coercivity components are less reduced so that the net remanence vector spins always toward the high-coercivity component, at rates and along paths not predicted by any structural geological formula. Experimentally deformed samples with very fine hematite in the matrix showed their net remanence spinning away from the high coercivity component. This is due to easier mechanical disorientation of the very fine hematite grains, scattering their magnetic moments more and reducing their contribution to the overall remanence. Thus, muticomponent remanences have their components selected for survival based on rock-magnetic and microstructural criteria. Such stress-rotation by coercivity selection does not depend on the orientations of the principal stresses or strains, a concept that is counterintuitive to conventional structural geology.Syn-tectonic remagnetization is common in deformed sedimentary sequences and laboratory experiments reveal that a only moderate differential stress remagnetization is required to add components parallel to the ambient field, without significant strain. Alternating field demagnetization isolates components smeared along the great circle between the initial remanence direction and the remagnetizing field direction. In this case, the principal directions of the stress and finite strain tensors are irrelevant; remagnetization is triggered by a threshold differential stress. The final remanence direction is controlled by the ambient field direction and the remagnetization path lies along a great circle between the ambient field and the initial remanence direction.     

古地磁多磁成分的分离技术

在古地磁的研究中，如何从复杂多样的退磁数据中获取能够代表岩石形成时期的古地磁场方向的原生剩磁组分，是关系到古地磁数据是否可靠、古地磁结果是否令人信服的根本环节之一，因此，如何充分利用实验室退磁数据所提供的各种信息去获取同源磁化的一组样品的原生剩磁方向是一个很有研究价值的问题。在总结前人的各种定性或定量的多磁成分分离技术的基础上，详细讨论了重磁化大圆的极和线性坳陷区内退磁平面的极的最佳拟合大圆的最小二乘拟合法，提出了综合使用主成分分析法、线性谱分析法、重磁化圆法以及退磁平面及重磁化大圆的二次拟合法，对来自同源磁化的一组样品进行系统分析，以获取一组样品的特征剩磁方向的方法，并应用于实际研究工作中。     

Tectonic rotations during the Chile Ridge collision and obduction of the Taitao ophiolite (southern Chile)

Abstract The < 6 Ma young Taitao ophiolite, exposed at the westernmost promontory of the Taitao Peninsula, is located approximately 40 km southeast of the Chile triple junction and consists of a complete sequence of oceanic lithosphere. Systematic sampling for paleomagnetic study was performed to understand the complex obduction processes of the ophiolite onto the forearc of the South American Plate. Two representative demagnetization paths of remanent magnetization vectors were observed. One is characterized by stable univectorial demagnetization paths and was observed in volcaniclastic rocks and dyke complexes. Orientations of their remanent magnetization vectors indicate various degrees of counterclockwise rotations. The other is characterized by multivectorial demagnetization paths and was observed in the plutonic units (gabbros and ultramafic rocks). From these, two distinct stable remanent magnetization vectors were isolated; one has high coercivity and the other has low coercivity along the demagnetization paths with little influence of viscous magnetizations. This suggests that the complex deformation history involved at least two rotational events. The clockwise rotation, inferred from high coercivity remanent magnetization vectors, was attributed to a ridge collision event and the counterclockwise rotation, inferred from the low coercivity remanent magnetization vectors, was attributed to an accommodation phase into the South American forearc during obduction and final emplacement of the ophiolite. Folds developed during this period. Paleomagnetic restorations of the internal structures of the plutonic units and dyke complexes suggest that they probably originated in a mid‐oceanic ridge environment near a transform fault. The counterclockwise rotation of the plutonic and dyke complex units during the obduction generated tectonic gaps between these and the basement. The volcaniclastic rocks must have been deposited at nearly their present location, filling the tectonic gaps, as less effect of tectonic rotation was identified on these rocks.     

Paleomagnetism of the latest Precambrian/Cambrian Unicoi basalts from the Blue Ridge, northeast Tennessee and southwest Virginia: evidence for Taconic deformation

Three components of magnetization have been observed in ninety-six samples (twelve sites) of amygdaloidal basalts and “sedimentary greenstones” of the Unicoi Formation in the Blue Ridge Province of northeast Tennessee and southwest Virginia. These components could be isolated by alternating field as well as thermal demagnetization. One component, with a direction close to that of the present-day geomagnetic field is ascribed to recent viscous remanent magnetizations; another component, with intermediate blocking temperatures and coercivities, gives a mean direction of D = 132°, I = +43°,α₉₅ = 9° for N = 10 sites before correction for tilt of the strata. This direction and the corresponding pole position are close to Ordovician/Silurian data from the North American craton and we infer this magnetization to be due to a thermal(?) remagnetization during or after the Taconic orogeny. This magnetization is of post-folding origin, which indicates that the Blue Ridge in our area was structurally affected by the Taconic deformation. The third component, with the highest blocking temperatures and coercivities, appears to reside in hematite. Its mean direction, D = 276°, I = ?17°,α₉₅ = 13.8° for N = 6 sites (after tilt correction) corresponds to a pole close to Latest Precambrian and Cambrian poles for North America. The fold test is inconclusive for this magnetization at the 95% confidence level because of the near-coincidence of the strike and the declinations. We infer this direction to be due to early high-temperature oxidation of the basalts, and argue that its magnetization may have survived the later thermal events because of its intrinsic high blocking temperatures. A detailed examination of the paleomagnetic directions from this study reveals that the Blue Ridge in this area may have undergone a small counterclockwise rotation of about 15°.     

Palaeomagnetism of (late Vendian-earliest Cambrian) minor alkaline intrusions, Fen Complex, southeast Norway

Emplacement of the Fen central complex (603-565 Ma) within the Fennoscandian Shield in southeast Norway was preceded by the emplacement of numerous minor alkaline intrusions into the surrounding gneisses. A palaeomagnetic sample of 28 of these bodies has identified a predominant SSE negative remanence carried by magnetite in some bodies and hematite in others. A sporadic high blocking temperature component appears to record localised effects associated with the development of the Oslo rift and igneous province to the east, but no major magnetic overprinting by post-emplacement events is recognised. The stable magnetisation vectors for twenty sites comprise a coherent population with those for two sites reversed with respect to the remainder; they yield a mean direction ofD = 210°,I = 44° (₉₅ = 6.4°) and a palaeomagnetic pole at 324°E, 50°S (dpdm=4.9°7.9°). The difference between the pole position for this early phase of the Fen magmatism and that for the late metasomatic rødberg (322°E, 63°S) in the interior of the complex is interpreted in terms of continental movement during the late Vendian-earliest Cambrian interval of alkaline activity here. The defined direction of APW movement continues a motion recognised from other Vendian data but subsequent movements during Lower Cambrian times are unclear.     

矫顽力组分定量分析揭示下蜀黄土磁化率异常降低的原因

镇江大港下蜀黄土剖面多个层位的磁化率出现异常降低,导致与北方黄土的磁化率记录难以对比.为探讨磁化率异常降低的原因,我们在大港钻探ZK孔获取了岩芯.在10个具代表性的层位采样并测量了其等温剩磁获得曲线.通过基于期望最大化算法的计算程序（Irmunmix V2.2）,定量分析了样品的磁性矫顽力组分（magnetic coercivity component）.结果显示这10个样品可大致分成3类,第一类不含中磁组分,第二类含有较少的中磁组分,第三类则含较多的中磁组分.矫顽力组分的含量与样品中铁锰结核的含量密切相关.铁锰结核含量高的样品,中磁组分、硬磁组分含量也高,而软磁组分含量低,与此对应的是这类样品的磁化率低.表明在铁锰结核的形成过程中,原始的软磁组分被溶解,而产生新的中磁组分、硬磁组分,这个次生变化过程导致样品磁化率异常降低.铁锰结核含量高的样品,经历过较强的还原作用,因此ZK剖面磁化率异常降低是还原作用的结果,可能是某时期降水量增大所致.     

Characteristics of 3-dimensional earthquake ground motions

An orthogonal set of principal axes is defined for earthquake ground motions along which the component variances have maximum, minimum and intermediate values and the covariances equal zero. Corresponding axes are defined which yield maximum values for the covariances. The orthogonal transformations involved are identical in form to those used in the transformation of stress. Examination of real accelerograms reveals that the major principal axis points in the general direction of the epicentre and the minor principal axis is nearly vertical. It is concluded that artificially generated components of ground motion need not be correlated statistically provided they are directed along a set of principal axes.     

Paleomagnetism of a Paleozoic anorthosite from the Appalachian Piedmont,northern Delaware: possible tectonic implications

Two components of magnetization have been observed in fourty-four samples (five sites) of the anorthosites in the Arden Pluton. One component, withD = 325°,I = ?75°,k = 32, α₉₅ = 13.6°, was isolated in many samples by progressive alternating field demagnetization and in the remainder of the collection by the use of intersecting great circles of remagnetization. The corresponding pole is located at 16°N, 303°E,dp = 22.7°,dm = 24.9°. Assuming the age of the last metamorphism (Taconic, ca. 440 Ma) of the Cambrian Arden Pluton to be the age of the magnetization, this pole deviates significantly from coeval poles thus far obtained from the North American craton. The preferred explanation for this deviation is that the Arden Pluton and the surrounding Piedmont rocks belonged to a different Early Paleozoic plate on the south or east side of the Iapetus Ocean, most likely the African (Gondwana) plate, and that it was transferred to the North American plate during a subsequent continental collision.     

Bias in converging great circle methods

In palaeomagnetic studies remagnetization circles are often observed to converge. The circles represent the simultaneous decay of two magnetic components, and the convergence zones represent estimates of their directions. It is shown that these estimates are biassed, the degree of biassing depending upon the distribution parameters. In particular the ratio of the precision of the underlying distributions (κ₂κ₁) is very important. Only whenκ₂κ₁ is very different from unity can converging great circle methods give accurate results. Of the examples available in the literature most appear to satisfy this criterion, but the indiscriminate use of these methods can lead to significantly biasssed results.     

Intensity and direction of lattice-preferred orientation of olivine: are electrical and seismic anisotropies of the Australian mantle reconcilable?

It has been hypothesised that seismic and electrical anisotropy at the base of the lithosphere are caused by strain-induced lattice-preferred orientation (LPO) of olivine [100] axes parallel to present-day plate motion. This would imply that seismic and electrical anisotropy observations can provide geodynamicists with fundamental information for characterising mantle flow. The qualitative agreement between the fast direction of SV-waves and direction of maximum electrical conductance modelled deeper than 150 km below the North Central craton of Australia appear to support a common alignment mechanism, and the observed, anisotropic electrical conductances can be generated by hydrogen diffusivity in a water-poor (<1000 ppm H/Si) olivine mantle. A quantitative test is proposed for the hypothesis that electrical anisotropy is generated by anisotropic hydrogen diffusion rates (D) in olivine. Electrical anisotropy factors are computed using random resistor network models assuming that D[100]≈20×D[010]≈40×D[001]. Electrical and seismic anisotropies calculated from olivine LPO angular distribution functions modelled for a range of shear strains under a simple shear deformation demonstrate that the intensity of olivine [100] alignments (and associated shear strains) that would be required to explain the electrical anisotropy in the mantle below central Australia are significantly greater than predicted by Rayleigh wave anisotropies. The poor agreement between the observed electrical anisotropies and the electrical anisotropies that would be predicted from the Rayleigh wave anisotropies indicates that either (i) electrical anisotropy in the upper mantle below central Australia is not generated by hydrogen diffusivity alone or (ii) the seismic anisotropy is underestimated. The orientation of the olivine [100] axes maxima is inferred to be ∼30° rotated relative to the direction of present-day absolute plate motion (APM) that is determined relative to the hotspot reference frame (HS2-NUVEL1). Both the APM direction that is determined relative to a reference frame defined by requiring no-net rotation of the lithosphere (NNR-NUVEL1) and GPS-derived plate motion vectors fit the geophysical observations of upper mantle anisotropy better. This may support the contention that hotspots are not stationary relative to the deep mantle.     

Analysis of the natural remanent magnetization of rocks by measuring the efficiency ratio through alternating field demagnetization spectra

The REM(AF) method is a new tool for the analysis of the origin and alternating field demagnetization coercivity spectra of the remanent magnetization. We applied this method on precambrian Gila diabase sheets from Arizona in order to identify the high coercivity magnetic carrier, and on artificially shocked Rowley Regis basalt from UK in order to analyze the effect of the shock on the natural remanent magnetization. In the Gila diabase the high coercivity magnetic component was identified to be most likely represented by the acicular magnetite (increase in the efficiency ratio in the high coercivity region). In the Rowley Regis basalt, the REM(AF) analysis revealed that comparing to NRM, the shock produced a different distribution of the AF demagnetization coercivity spectra due to the occurrence of the Shock Remanent Magnetization.     

Remanent magnetization of mural paintings from the Bibliotheca Apostolica (Vatican,Rome)

The remanent magnetization of red colour specimens from five mural paintings in three halls of Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana (Sistus V, Paul V and Alexander VIII, 1580–1690 A.D.) was investigated with the usual palaeomagnetic techniques. All specimens have a strong remanent magnetization carried by haematite, as shown by X-ray powder diffraction analyses. Secondary magnetization components are either absent or weak and removed by alternating field demagnetization at peak-field up to 20 mT. The specimens from the Sistus V hall have a very high remanence coercivity, having still 80–90% of the initial remanence after demagnetization at 280 mT peak-field. Two murals have remanence direction close to that of the Earth's field at the time they were painted. The direction from the mural on the east wall of the Paul V hall, painted around 1610–1615, is in good agreement with the results of the 1640 direct measurement in Rome and that from the Alexander VIII hall, which was repainted around 1815, is close to the 1833 measurement. The directions from the other three murals, two in the Sistus V and one in the Paul V halls, are close to each other and to the Earth's field direction measured in Rome in the first half of the 19th century. The three murals might have been restored at this time or their remanence direction is affected by a systematic misalignement.     

New paleomagnetic constraints on the late Cretaceous and early Cenozoic tectonic history of the Eastern Pontides

The Pontides are characterized by a series of Mesozoic-Cenozoic fold belts comprising a N-vergent foreland fold and thrust belt in the Western Pontides and a concave, upward-shaped fold belt in the Eastern Pontides. The curvature of the fold belt follows the Caucasus which may imply a phase of oroclinal bending. In order to test whether the fold curvature represents a phase of oroclinal bending, a paleomagnetic study has been carried out in the Eastern Pontides on late Cretaceous and middle Eocene volcanic and sedimentary rocks from 29 sites. Rock magnetic studies reveal medium-temperature components with an unblocking temperature of 400–580 °C, indicating pseudo-single domain titanomagnetite as the most abundant carrier of magnetic remanence in the middle Eocene rocks studied here. In the upper Cretaceous rocks, a high-temperature component with an unblocking range of 580–650 °C was isolated. Stepwise thermal and alternating field demagnetization isolated two components of remanent magnetization in middle Eocene rocks comprising a low unblocking temperature/coercivity component near the present field direction and a characteristic remanent magnetization (ChRM) component of D_s = 332.3°, I_s = 49.9° (k = 33.3, α₉₅ = 9.2°, N = 15 sites). A positive fold test at a 95% confidence level and a reversal test indicate a primary magnetization. Component analysis of the upper Cretaceous rocks identifies a stable ChRM D_s = 160.3°, I_s = −45.0°, (k =  85.6, α₉₅ = 6.0°, N =  8 sites) following removal of secondary remanence. Their ChRM direction passes fold and reversal tests at a 95% confidence level. Both the upper Cretaceous and middle Eocene paleomagnetic data from the Eastern Pontides and the Lesser Caucasus clearly demonstrate evidence of oroclinal bending that occurred contemporaneouslywith the convergence between Arabia and Eurasia in the Paleocene.     

Transmission electron microscope and rock magnetic investigations of remanence carriers in a Precambrian metadolerite

A Precambrian metadolerite dyke has two distinct types of remanence carriers; those with medium/high coercivities (unblocking fields of 20–120 mT) and those with low coercivities (unblocking fields of <15 mT). Optical examination reveals numerous submicron probably opaque inclusions in the plagioclase feldspar and also large opaque grains consisting of coarse oxidation-exsolution intergrowths of magnetite and ilmenite. All opaque phases have been examined using transmission electron microscopy together with microanalysis and electron diffraction. The submicron inclusions in the plagioclase are titanomagnetites(0 < x ≤ 0.14) with a size range between about 0.01 and 0.5 μm and axial ratios between 1 (equidimensional) and about 0.3. Many of these inclusions fall in the single-domain field but some are probably pseudo-single-domain. The large opaque grains contain almost pure magnetite and ilmenite and show no fine-scale exsolution; the magnetite regions of the intergrowths are of multidomain size and reveal multidomain structure under Lorentz electron microscopy. There are also some primary ilmenites containing very fine exsolved haematite, and there are very fine plates of ilmenite and very elongate needles of magnetite within the augite. Experiments on artificial samples containing very carefully prepared separates of plagioclase and large opaque grains show that the pure plagioclase acquires a remanence with unblocking fields of 20–140 mT and blocking temperatures of 390–590°C and the large opaque grains acquire a remanence with unblocking fields of less than 15 mT but a wide range of blocking temperatures up to about 570°C. It is concluded that the medium/high coercivity component of remanence in the rock is carried largely or possibly entirely by the submicron magnetites within the plagioclase and that the low coercivity component is carried largely or entirely by the multidomain magnetites in the large opaques. The contribution of the magnetite needles in the augite is uncertain as the rock does not contain any detectable component of remanence with the extremely high coercivities expected from their very elongate shape.     

Paleomagnetism of mid-Cretaceous red beds in west-central Kyushu Island, southwest Japan: paleoposition of Cretaceous sedimentary basins along the eastern margin of Asia

A paleomagnetic study was carried out on the mid-Cretaceous sedimentary strata in west-central Kyushu Island, southwest Japan, to elucidate the origin of sedimentary basins along the Asian continental margin in the Cretaceous. We collected paleomagnetic samples from a total of 34 sites of the mid-Cretaceous Goshonoura Group, shallow-marine clastic deposits in west-central Kyushu, and characteristic remanent magnetizations were recognized from 18 horizons of red beds. Thermal demagnetization has revealed that the red beds contain three magnetization components, with low (<240°C), intermediate (240-480°C), and high (480-680°C) unblocking temperatures. The low unblocking temperature component is present-field viscous magnetization, and the intermediate one is interpreted as chemical remanent magnetization carried by maghemite that was presumably formed by post-folding, partial oxidation of detrital magnetite. Rock magnetic and petrographic studies suggest that the high unblocking temperature component resides largely in hematite (martite and pigmentary hematite) and partly in maghemite. Because of the positive fold test, this high temperature component can be regarded as primary, detrital remanent magnetization. The tilt-corrected mean direction of the high temperature component is Dec=65°, Inc=63° with α₉₅=5°, which yields a paleomagnetic pole at 39°N, 186°E and A₉₅=8°. A combination of this pole with those of the Late Cretaceous rocks in southwest Japan defines an apparent polar wander path (APWP), which is featured by a cusp between the Late Cretaceous and the Paleogene. A comparison of this APWP with the coeval paleomagnetic pole from northeast Asia suggests an approximately 50° post-Cretaceous clockwise rotation and 18±8° southward drift with respect to northeast Asia. The southward transport of the Cretaceous basin suggests that the proto-Japanese arc originated north of its present position. We propose that the coast-parallel translation of this landmass was caused by dextral motion of strike-slip faults, which previous geodynamic models interpreted to be sinistral through the Mesozoic. The change in strike-slip motion may have resulted from Mesozoic collision and penetration of exotic terranes, such as the Okhotsk microcontinent, with the northeastern part of Asia.     

江苏地区地电暴特征及差异性

利用FFT方法对江苏区域地电场、地磁以及有关台站的钻孔应变数据进行处理,提取频谱特征,对该区各地电台站的地电暴特征进行分析,研究结果表明：①江苏区域地电场各测项地电暴数据与地磁H分量变化趋势接近,但各台地电场不同测项的突跳方向存在各向异性,4个地电台站EW向数据具有一致同向现象,NS向数据有差异性;②由各分量优势周期对应性可知,江苏地区地电场NS向含有的地磁场H分量高于体应变成分,地电场EW向倾向于地磁场H分量与体应变叠加抵消的结果;③当磁暴发生时,地磁H分量变化幅度相同的台站,地电场变化幅度不同,地电台站的地电暴变化特征与其地下结构有关,地下深层阻抗越大,感应电场越大,地电场日变化幅度越大。     

Paleomagnetism of the Djebel Reouina Namurian Formation (Tindouf Basin,Algeria)

The paleomagnetic study of the Namurian of Reouina (28.9°N, 08.0°W) revealed the existence of two magnetization components, either juxtaposed or superimposed, besides a viscous component. The high blocking temperature component, carried by hematite, has a mean direction defined by D = 126.9° and I = 10.8°. It provides a Namurian paleomagnetic pole located at 28.4°S and 56.9°E (K = 642, A ₉₅=1.7°). The second component is carried at least in part, by grains with blocking temperatures lower than 550°C. Though well defined, it consists of two superimposed components, the high unblocking temperature component with a likely Permian overprint.     

Palaeointensities from sediments: normalization by laboratory redepositions

Deep-sea sediments, comprising small magnetic grains in coarse and fine fabrics, were reconstituted and deposited in laboratory fields. Both the magnitude and the direction of the natural remanent magnetization (NRM) were accurately reproduced. Only the middle coercivity fraction, however, gave a faithful representation of the laboratory field. This same fraction originally held the stable NRM component. The results were interpreted on a model of post-depositional realignment based on the physical characteristics of the sediment. Laboratory redeposition was found to be a closer analogue to the NRM than were anhysteretic or other laboratory-induced magnetizations. Guidelines are given by which the techniques could be utilised to estimate the intensity of the ancient geomagnetic field.