激光雷达和点云切片算法结合的森林有效叶面积指数估算

叶面积指数(LAI)是定量模拟和刻画植被冠层结构、生理过程以及研究森林生态系统碳水循环中物质和能量交换的重要生物物理参数之一。定量分析林冠元素的3维空间分布是准确估算森林叶面积指数的重要基础和关键步骤。本文利用地面激光雷达扫描系统(TLS),获取了不同树种、密度、年龄和空间分布的森林3维点云数据,利用"径向半球点云切片"和"点云法向量重建"算法分别计算森林的角度孔隙率和消光系数,进而得到森林冠层的有效叶面积指数。通过与利用传统光学仪器得到的结果比较发现:单站半球式激光雷达扫描得到森林样方尺度的结果与LAI-2200和数字半球摄影观测所得结果的相关性分别为R2=0.7084(N=9,p0.01)和0.7409(N=14,p0.01)。通过角度分辨率(LBA)和角度孔隙率(AGF)的敏感性分析,建议径向半球切片算法的角度分辨率应参考中心单站TLS半球式扫描所设置的采样间距。本文所采用的径向半球切片算法可以有效地利用单站半球式扫描所获取的3维点云进行森林冠层有效叶面积指数的定量估算。     

地基激光雷达的玉兰林冠层叶面积密度反演

叶面积密度LAD(Leaf Area Density)是表征冠层内部叶面积垂直分布的重要参数,其分布廓线的准确反演对研究植被碳氮循环、初级生产力和生物量估算等具有重要意义。本文在电子科技大学校内建立实验样区,利用地基激光雷达Leica Scan Station C10和数码相机获取玉兰林高分辨率3维激光点云数据和真彩色影像。利用监督分类将真彩色影像中枝干等非光合组织与叶片分离,再将像素分类信息映射给点云数据,从而提取叶片点云。通过点云数据体元化,并引入2维凸包算法确定垂直方向分层树冠边界,获取激光接触冠层的频率;随机选择不同高度的多个叶片,利用特征值法进行叶片平面拟合,估算出叶倾角,并结合天顶角估算叶倾角校正因子;最后基于体元的冠层分析VCP(Voxel-based Canopy Profiling)方法实现树林冠层LAD反演。结果表明体元化的叶片点云数据能准确确定树林冠层边界和统计接触频率实现LAD反演;反演的LAD变化走势与区域林木冠层叶片垂直分布相吻合,在冠层中下部随着高度的增加叶面积密度也随之增加,在4 m高度处达到最大值1 m2/m3,之后随着高度的增加叶面积密度逐渐降低。根据LAD计算得到的累积叶面积指数LAI为3.20 m2/m2,与LAI-2200实测的叶面积指数相比,相对误差为1.26%。     

高光谱激光雷达提取植被生化组分垂直分布

对地高光谱激光雷达可以获得观测对象含有高光谱属性的全波形激光雷达回波,为探测植被生化特征的立体分布提供了新的遥感探测手段。基于此仪器开展室内试验,提出了植被生化组分垂直分布提取方法。首先,针对仪器的特点,提出了高光谱激光雷达全波形数据处理的方法;其次,以火炬花为例开展了室内扫描,并对获取的高光谱激光雷达数据进行了处理,获得带有高光谱属性的激光雷达点云数据;最后,根据植被指数与生化组分的关系,提取了叶绿素和胡萝卜素的生化组分垂直分布结果。研究结果表明,在植被顶部生化组分含量较低,叶绿素a普遍低于0.5 mg/g,胡萝卜素低于0.2 mg/g,而在中部叶片处,生化组分含量明显较高,与红色(顶部)和绿色叶片(中部)在植被垂直方向的分布一致,这表明基于仪器开展植被生理生化参数垂直分布遥感反演具有极大的应用潜力。     

地面LiDAR数据模拟及单木LAI反演

地面激光雷达Li DAR可以快速获取高精度、高密度的点云数据,在植被结构参数获取方面的应用越来越广泛。为了定量分析地面激光雷达点云数据获取单木结构参数的能力和精度,本文提出利用光线跟踪结合植被真实结构模拟地面3维激光扫描仪的单木点云数据(以RIEGL VZ-1000为例),并结合间隙率模型反演单木叶面积指数LAI。在点云模拟过程中,充分考虑了脉冲特性,包括光斑大小、波束发射角以及回波探测强度。重点分析了光斑大小和最小探测强度对LAI反演的影响,并采用根河实测单木数据进行了验证。结果表明,光斑大小和最小探测强度的设定对于LAI反演结果存在很大影响,该结论对于提高地面激光雷达点云数据反演植被结构参数精度具有重要意义。     

基于城区机载雷达数据的双重滤波算法

机载激光雷达扫描技术能快速且高精度地获取地面点的3维坐标,而激光雷达数据处理的首要任务就是点云的滤波,也即是将地面点和非地面点进行分离.传统的滤波方法大都是基于一定的地形条件或是小规模数据量进行的.针对城区的3维点云处理提出了一种双重滤波方法:先构建三角网,根据三角面片的角度信息过滤出一部分点云,将剩余点划分成规则格网;然后通过移动最小二乘曲面拟合法,将高差大于一定阈值的点滤除,从而获得地面点云.     

植被冠层光谱和叶片光谱的尺度转换

叶面积密度可以表征冠层内部叶面积的垂直分布,是作物生长发育、营养诊断和育种研究的重要结构参数。激光雷达通过发射多脉冲和接收多回波信号可以探测到作物冠层内部信息。首先基于无人机激光雷达获取60个小区多航线的玉米点云数据,采用基于接触频率的体素法对叶面积密度进行估算,再对多个体素大小进行分析得到最优体素大小（0.2 m）;其次对各航线以及航线叠加效果进行对比,得到无人机激光雷达获取点云数据的最优激光脉冲入射角（-30°~52°）;然后结合玉米叶倾角和激光脉冲入射角对叶面积密度估算模型进行校正,从而提高叶面积密度估算精度;最后通过对不同种植密度和不同品种的玉米叶面积密度分布进行分析,得到不同品种玉米的发育快慢、株型特点以及最合理的种植密度。以上结果可为基于无人机激光雷达数据估算叶面积密度提供指导,并为玉米育种和科学管理提供参考。     

地面激光雷达的单木真实叶面积指数提取

针对已有的测量叶面积指数(LAI)的方法中,LAI测量结果受其定义、采样方法、数据分析和仪器误差等影响产生极大差异的问题,该文使用地面激光雷达(TLS)提取LAI,对北京林业大学校园内具有代表性的单株树木进行了扫描,通过对数据预处理提取出树冠点云,将其模拟为半球图像后运用球极平面投影和Lambert方位角等面积投影两种投影方法,通过统计面积的方法分别计算不同投影方法和图像划分方法下的孔隙率,进而计算出真实叶面积指数。同时与利用叶面积指数仪LAI-2000所测得的数据进行对比。研究结果表明,地面激光雷达提取单木真实叶面积指数与实测值对比,两种投影下18个环的图像划分方法均更接近真实值,其中在Lambert方位角等面积投影下计算结果更准确。     

目标相关的点云位置精度建模

针对地面三维激光雷达扫描容易受到测量噪声的影响、获取的点云易受系统和随机误差的影响这一问题,该文基于激光雷达作用距离方程,建立目标表面的入射角、距离和反射率等目标相关因素对点云几何精度的影响模型。将平面拟合精度作为点云几何精度评价指标,利用Faro Focus 3D地面三维激光雷达对6种材质的平面在不同距离、不同入射角的条件下进行扫描实验。实验结果表明,加入反射率影响模型后,垂直方向改正中误差的幅值减小,反射率影响模型有效。     

TLS三维点云聚类滤波算法应用研究

现有地面三维激光扫描点云数据滤波算法较少,针对地形复杂区域的点云滤波效果更是不甚理想,因此对二维聚类算法进行改进,提出三维点云聚类滤波算法,并对其在地形复杂区域的TLS数据滤波中的应用进行研究。以重庆鸡冠岭危岩体的TLS数据为例,分别采用曲率平滑滤波方法和文中提出的点云聚类滤波方法处理,并对两种方法处理过的数据进行形变量计算和分析。实验证明,针对植被覆盖茂密、地形复杂的山体,该方法的点云滤波效果较好,且处理速度有较大提升,能为点云后期形变量计算提供较好的基础。     

3维激光雷达在优化选线中的应用研究

由于激光波长短,能够穿透植被叶冠到达地表,可同时获取地表和植被的信息,此外,还能够探测细小目标（如电力线）。这些都是传统测量技术无法做到的,本文以3维激光雷达在优化选线中的应用为研究对象,研究探讨了LiDAR在输电线路优化中的应用流程,分析了数据获取和数据处理的相关思路,探讨了3维激光雷达在电力选线工程中的技术优越性。     

植被冠层立体结构与叶片倾角的偏振光效应

植被偏振特性研究对于植被监测与组分定量反演具有极其重要的作用。植被冠层的反射辐射具有偏振特性,这种特性与入射辐射和植被冠层结构相关。本文分析了偏振对光子—叶片—冠层之间细微相互作用及其变化的有效探测能力,并利用研究型扫描式偏振辐射仪RSP(Research Scanning Polarimeter)数据系统对比分析了偏振对不同叶倾角分布的估测。通过上述研究得出以下结论:(1)偏振观测能够对光线在冠层立体结构中的透射反射再出射过程给出精细刻画,若不用偏振手段对这一过程进行甄别并去除,则直接测算的植被散射系数会产生高达140%的误差;(2)利用偏振手段可以为高精度大倾角、多时相遥感观测提供可能,以此可改变目前光学遥感小角度、垂直观测的较严格约束;(3)偏振辐射呈现出随波长的稳定特性(相关系数0.96),使得利用偏振手段可以更好地研究冠层结构;(4)不同叶倾角分布对入射辐射存在不同的偏振反射,为利用多角度偏振信息进行遥感植被精细分类提供了新的途径。本文详细描述冠层结构和植被偏振特性的相互作用,通过对冠层立体结构与叶倾角的研究,刻画了植被定量遥感的方向性信息与高精度实现,为高分辨率遥感定量化的有效信息挖掘提供了新手段。     

Inversion of PROSAIL Model for Retrieval of Plant Biophysical Parameters

The current development of satellite technology particularly in the sensors like POLDER and MISR, has emphasized more on directional reflectance measurements (i.e. spectral reflectance of the target measured from different view zenith and azimuth angles) of the earth surface features mainly the vegetation for retrieval of biophysical parameters at regional scale using radiative transfer models. This approach being physical process based and uses directional reflectance measurement has been found to better and more reliable compared to the conventional statistical approach used till date and takes care of anisotropic nature (i.e. reflectance from the target is different if measured from different view angles) of the target. Keeping this in view a field experiment was conducted in mustard crop to evaluate the radiative transfer model for biophysical parameter retrieval through its inversion with the objectives set as (i) to relate canopy biophysical parameters and geometry to its bidirectional reflectance, (ii) to evaluate a canopy reflectance model to best represent the radiative transfer within the canopy for its inversion and (iii) to retrieve crop biophysical parameters through inversion of the model. Two varieties of the mustard crop (Brassica juncea L) were grown with two nitrogen treatments. The bidirectional reflectance data obtained at 5 nm interval for a range of 400–1100 nm were integrated to IRS LISS–II sensor’s four band values using Newton Cotes Integration technique. Biophysical parameters like leaf area index, leaf chlorophyll content, leaf length, plant height and average leaf inclination angle, biomass etc were estimated synchronizing with the bi-directional reflectance measurements. Radiative transfer model PROSAIL model was validated and its inversion was done to retrieve LAI and ALA. Look Up Table (LUT) of Bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) was prepared simulating through PROSAIL model varying only LAI (0.2 interval from 1.2 to 5.4 ) and ALA (5° interval from 40° to 55°) parameters and inversion was done using a merit function and numerical optimization technique given by Press et al. (1986). The derived LAI and ALA values from inversion were well matched with observed one with RMSE 0.521 and 5.57, respectively.     

Yaw attitude modeling for BeiDou I06 and BeiDou-3 satellites

The estimated yaw angles of the BeiDou I06 satellite demonstrated that the satellite experienced midnight- or noon-turn maneuvers when the sun elevation angle above the orbital plane (β angle) was in the range of [??3°, +?3°] and the orbital angle was in the range of approximately [??6°, 6°] or [174°, 186°]. The behavior of yaw attitude maneuvers in the vicinity of the midnight and noon points was identical. An alternative yaw attitude model similar to that used for the Galileo Full-Operation-Capacity (FOC) satellites was developed on the basis of the estimated BeiDou I06 yaw angles with an accuracy of approximately 3.4° to reproduce the yaw attitude behaviors. However, a discrepancy in the form of a reversal in yaw direction during the midnight-turn maneuver was observed for BeiDou I06 when the β angle was extremely small (<?0.1°). The derived yaw attitude model was proved to model the yaw attitude of the BeiDou-3 experimental satellites, and reduces the observation residuals in the vicinity of the midnight and noon points to normal levels, and facilitates continuous satellite clock estimation during eclipse periods. Compared to the yaw attitude model developed by the European Space Operations Centre (ESOC), a similar performance has been achieved with maximum yaw differences up to 9.2° when the β angle is close to 0°. The average agreement between the models is about 1°. However, the ESOC model was developed based on a patented eclipsing model, the developed model in this study is open access.     

Ground Based Bistatic Scatterometer Measurement for the Estimation of Growth Variables of Ladyfinger Crop at X-Band

The present study describes the ground based bistatic scatterometer measurements of ladyfinger crop at its various growth stages in the specular direction with the azimuthal angle (\( \phi = 0 \)) for the angular incidence angle ranging from 20° to 60° at the interval of 10° at HH and VV polarization. An outdoor ladyfinger crop bed of an area 4 × 4 m² was specially prepared for the ground based bistatic scatterometer measurements. The crop growth variables like vegetation water content, leaf area index, fresh biomass, and plant height were also measured at the time of each bistatic scatterometer measurement. The specular bistatic scattering coefficients were found to be decreasing with the crop growth variables up to the maturity stage and then after it increased slightly. The linear regression analysis was carried out between specular bistatic scattering coefficient and crop growth variables at all the incidence angles for HH and VV polarization to select the optimum angle of incidence and polarization for the estimation of crop growth variables. The potential of subtractive clustering based adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system was applied for the estimation of crop growth variables. The estimated values for different crop growth variables were found almost close to the observed values.     

Classifying individual tree species under leaf-off and leaf-on conditions using airborne lidar

In this paper, a methodology for individual tree-based species classification using high sampling density and small footprint lidar data is clarified, corrected and improved. For this purpose, a well-defined directed graph (digraph) is introduced and it plays a fundamental role in the approach. It is argued that there exists one and only one such unique digraph that describes all four pure events and resulting disjoint sets of laser points associated with a single tree in data from a two-return lidar system. However, the digraph is extendable so that it fits an n-return lidar system (n > 2) with higher logical resolution. Furthermore, a mathematical notation for different types of groupings of the laser points is defined, and a new terminology for various types of individual tree-based concepts defined by the digraph is proposed. A novel calibration technique for estimating individual tree heights is evaluated. The approach replaces the unreliable maximum single laser point height of each tree with a more reliable prediction based on shape characteristics of a marginal height distribution of the whole first-return point cloud of each tree. The result shows a reduction of the RMSE of the tree heights of about 20% (stddev = 1.1 m reduced to stddev = 0.92 m). The method improves the species classification accuracy markedly, but it could also be used for reducing the sampling density at the time of data acquisition. Using the calibrated tree heights, a scale-invariant rescaled space for the universal set of points for each tree is defined, in which all individual tree-based geometric measurements are conducted. With the corrected and improved classification methodology the total accuracy raises from 60% to 64% for classifying three leaf-off individual tree deciduous species (N = 200 each) in West Virginia, USA: oaks (Quercus spp.), red maple (Acer rubrum), and yellow poplar (Liriodendron tuliperifera).     

Transformation method of exterior orientation angular elements obtained via position and orientation system under Gauss-Kruger projection coordinate system

Data obtained via airborne position and orientation system (POS) is in WGS 84 global geocentric reference frame, while the national coordinate reference system for topographic mapping in China is generally Gauss-Kruger projection coordinate system. Therefore, data obtained via a POS must be transformed to national coordinate system. Owing to the effects of earth curvature and meridian deviation, there are some errors in the process of angle transformation from roll, pitch, and heading (Φ ,Θ ,Ψ )obtained dir...     

Retrieval of effective leaf area index (LAIe) and leaf area density (LAD) profile at individual tree level using high density multi-return airborne LiDAR

As an important canopy structure indicator, leaf area index (LAI) proved to be of considerable implications for forest ecosystem and ecological studies, and efficient techniques for accurate LAI acquisitions have long been highlighted. Airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR), often termed as airborne laser scanning (ALS), once was extensively investigated for this task but showed limited performance due to its low sampling density. Now, ALS systems exhibit more competing capacities such as high density and multi-return sampling, and hence, people began to ask the questions like—“can ALS now work better on the task of LAI prediction?” As a re-examination, this study investigated the feasibility of LAI retrievals at the individual tree level based on high density and multi-return ALS, by directly considering the vertical distributions of laser points lying within each tree crown instead of by proposing feature variables such as quantiles involving laser point distribution modes at the plot level. The examination was operated in the case of four tree species (i.e. Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris, Populus tremula and Quercus robur) in a mixed forest, with their LAI-related reference data collected by using static terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). In light of the differences between ALS- and TLS-based LAI characterizations, the methods of voxelization of 3D scattered laser points, effective LAI (LAIe) that does not distinguish branches from canopies and unified cumulative LAI (ucLAI) that is often used to characterize the vertical profiles of crown leaf area densities (LADs) was used; then, the relationships between the ALS- and TLS-derived LAIes were determined, and so did ucLAIs. Tests indicated that the tree-level LAIes for the four tree species can be estimated based on the used airborne LiDAR (R² = 0.07, 0.26, 0.43 and 0.21, respectively) and their ucLAIs can also be derived. Overall, this study has validated the usage of the contemporary high density multi-return airborne LiDARs for LAIe and LAD profile retrievals at the individual tree level, and the contribution are of high potential for advancing forest ecosystem modeling and ecological understanding.