Microarthropod communities associated with biological soil crusts in the Colorado Plateau and Chihuahuan deserts

Biological soil crusts provide habitat for microarthropods of various trophic groups in arid systems, but the community composition and functional role of microarthropods in these unique systems are not well characterized for many desert locations. This study examined the microarthropod community, including mites, collembolans, and tardigrades, associated with early- and late-successional stage biological soil crusts at two locations, Colorado Plateau (southeastern Utah) and Chihuahuan Desert (southern New Mexico). Most microarthropod groups were more abundant in Colorado Plateau than Chihuahuan Desert, and tardigrades were more abundant near the surface (0–10 cm) than at depth (10–30 cm). Although the microarthropod community composition differed between Colorado Plateau and Chihuahuan Desert, Aphelacaridae, Cosmochthoniidae, Micropsammidae, Nanorchestidae, Stigmaeidae, and Tydeidae were families common to both locations, both crust stages and both depths. Most families present were microphytophagous, either strictly or as facultative predators. These findings are compatible with the microfloral nature of biological soil crusts dominated by lichen, moss, and cyanobacteria. Occasional predation of nematodes and protozoa grazing on the crust flora is likely. Other groups identified included zoophages, necrophages and macrophytophages. Proposed is a ‘core community’ of five strict microphytophages, four facultative predators, two zoophages, and one necrophage family.     

Exploring some relationships between biological soil crusts, soil aggregation and wind erosion

A portable wind tunnel was used to test the contribution of biological and physical elements to overall soil aggregation on a soil dominated by biological soil crusts in south-eastern Australia. After moderate disturbance and simulated wind erosion, 90% of surface aggregates on the loamy soil and 76% on the sandy soil were dominated by biological elements (cryptogams). Lower levels of biological bonding were observed on the severely disturbed treatment. Linear regression indicated a significant positive relationship (r²=0·72) between biological soil crust cover and dry aggregation levels greater than 0·85mm. To maintain sediment transport below an erosion control target of 5gm⁻¹s⁻¹ for a 65kmh⁻¹ wind at 10m height, a crust cover of approximately 20% is required. When a multiple regression model which sequentially fitted biological crust cover and dry aggregation greater than 0·85mm was applied to the data, dry aggregation accounted for more of the variation in sediment transport rate than biological crust cover. These data were used to develop a conceptual model which integrates crust cover and dry aggregation, and provides a useful framework within which to predict the likely impacts of changes in soil crust cover and aggregation.     

The effects of extreme rainfall events on carbon release from biological soil crusts covered soil in fixed sand dunes in the Tengger Desert, northern China

In May to August of 2011, we assessed the effects of extreme rainfall (quantity and intensity) events on the carbon release from soils covered by different types of biological soil crusts (BSCs) in fixed sand dunes in the Tengger Desert, northern China. A Li-6400-09 Soil Chamber was used to measure the respiration rates of the BSCs immediately after the rainfall stopped, and continued until the respiration rates of the BSCs returned to the pre-rainfall basal rate. Our results showed that almost immediately after extreme rainfall events the respiration rates of algae crust and mixed crust were significantly inhibited, but moss crust was not significantly affected. The respiration rates of algae crust, mixed crust, and moss crust in extreme rainfall quantity and intensity events were, respectively, 0.12 and 0.41 μmolCO 2 /(m 2 ·s), 0.10 and 0.45 μmolCO 2 /(m 2 ·s), 0.83 and 1.69 μmolCO 2 /(m 2 ·s). Our study indicated that moss crust in the advanced succession stage can well adapt to extreme rainfall events in the short term.     

Increase in medium-size rainfall events will enhance the C-sequestration capacity of biological soil crusts

Biological soil crusts(BSCs) play important roles in the carbon(C) balance in arid regions. Net C balance of BSCs is strongly dependent on rainfall and consequent activation of microbes in the BSCs. The compensation-rainfall size for BSCs(the minimum rainfall amount for a positive net C balance) is assumed to be different with BSCs of different developmental stages. A field experiment with simulated rainfall amount(SRA) of 0, 1, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mm was conducted to examine the C fluxes and compensation-rainfall size of BSCs in different parts of fixed dunes in the ecotone between the Badain Jaran Desert and the Minqin Oasis. We found algae-lichen crust on the interdunes and crest, algae crust on the leeward side, and lichen-moss crust on the windward. Even a small rainfall(1 mm) can activate both photosynthesis and respiration of all types of BSCs. The gross ecosystem production, ecosystem respiration, and net ecosystem exchange were significantly affected by SRA, hours after the simulated rainfall, position on a dune, and their interactions. The rapid activation of photosynthesis provides a C source and therefore could be responsible for the increase of C efflux after each rewetting. C-uptake and-emission capacity of all the BSCs positively correlated with rainfall size, with the lowest C fluxes on the leeward side. The compensation rainfall for a net C uptake was 3.80, 15.54, 8.62, and 1.88 mm for BSCs on the interdunes, the leeward side, the crest, and the windward side, respectively. The whole dune started to show a net C uptake with an SRA of 5 mm and maximized with an SRA of about 30 mm. The compensation-rainfall size is negatively correlated with chlorophyll content. Our results suggest that BSCs will be favored in terms of C balance, and sand dune stabilization could be sustained with an increasing frequency of 5-10 mm rainfall events in the desert-oasis transitional zone.-     

人工生物土壤结皮对草本植物群落组成与多样性的影响

人工生物土壤结皮（Biological Soil Crusts, BSCs）指通过人工培养加速形成的BSCs,可用于沙化土地治理。目前关于人工BSCs的研究多在藻种选择与培养、接种方法优化及野外拓殖等方面,缺少其对荒漠生态系统功能恢复作用的研究。为探讨人工BSCs对草本植物多样性等荒漠生态系统功能恢复的影响,以腾格里沙漠东南缘人工BSCs与流沙为研究对象,对人工BSCs属性以及草本植物的组成、生长和多样性进行了研究。结果表明：人工BSCs样地共有9种草本植物,隶属于4科9属,其中苋科（Amaranthaceae）种数最多,其次为禾本科（Gramineae）,优势种为砂蓝刺头（Echinops gmelini）。对照组流沙的草本植物总盖度8%、生物量11.63 g·m^-2、丰富度0.71、多度1.00;人工BSCs草本植物的总盖度11%—19%、生物量80.00—179.70 g·m^-2、丰富度1.67—3.67、多度4.33—16.78。人工BSCs盖度与草本植物盖度为二次函数关系,而人工BSCs属性与草本植物的盖度、生物量、丰富度、多度均呈显著正相关关系。因此,人工BSCs形成与发育有利于草本植物的生长和多样性的恢复,加快了荒漠生态系统功能恢复。     

The spatial distribution patterns of biological soil crusts in the Gurbantunggut Desert, Northern Xinjiang, China

The Gurbantunggut Desert, the largest fixed and semi-fixed desert in China, is characterized by a predominant coverage of lichen-dominated biological soil crusts, which serve an indispensable role in sand fixation. Two findings of biological soil crusts have been disclosed from previous field observations: first, distribution of biological soil crusts is selective upon locations; second, species composition varies significantly for the biological soil crusts that are at different developing stages. In this study, a strategy was developed to investigate the spatial distribution of biological soil crusts by coupling remote sensing data and field measurements. A crust index for the Landsat ETM+ data has been developed and applied to detect the lichen-dominated biological soil crusts in the Gurbantunggut Desert. The results indicated the South of the desert encompassed the most abundant biological soil crusts. Besides, biological soil crusts were distributed in uniform density in the South of the desert whereas their distribution patterns become patchier in the rest of the desert. Finally, statistics from the classification revealed that biological soil crusts covered 28.7% of the land in the whole study area. However, it is worth mentioning that the crusts coverage may be underestimated given the fact that detection of crusts from the Landsat ETM+ imagery is viable only if crusts constitute more than 33% of the instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of the Landsat ETM+ sensor.     

The effect of biological soil crusts of different successional stages and conditions on the germination of seeds of three desert plants

Biological soil crusts greatly affect soil surface properties, which, in turn, may alter seed germination of vascular plants. We investigated the effects of two types of biological soil crusts (moss crust and algal crust) at different ages on the seed germination of Bassia dasyphylla and Artemisia ordosica. We also investigated the effects of crust conditions (living crust and dead crust) on seed germination of B. dasyphylla, A. ordosica and Eragrostis poaeoides. The presence of both algal and moss crusts significantly enhanced the germination of B. dasyphylla and A. ordosica compared with uncrusted soil. Crust age had no significant effect on the germination of either B. dasyphylla or A. ordosica for both moss and algal crusts. Germination of B. dasyphylla differed significantly between moss and algal crusts, but germination of both A. ordosica and E. poaeoides did not. Germination of A. ordosica, E. poaeoides and B. dasyphylla was significantly higher on living algal crust than on dead crust and uncrusted soil, while living moss crust enhanced the germination of both A. ordosica and B. dasyphylla but had no significant effect on E. poaeoides.     

Temporal dynamics and productivity of biogenic soil crusts in the central Karakum desert, Turkmenistan

Biogenic soil crusts (BSCs), consisting of different combinations of mosses, lichens, liverworts, fungi and cyanobacteria, are a widespread phenomenon in arid and semi-arid environments. BSCs are found throughout those areas unaffected by grazing and other anthropogenic activities. Current economic conditions in the newly Independent Central Asian States favor the development of BSCs, which may significantly influence plant communities. The data from 40-years of field observations in a protected area in the Karakum Desert, Turkmenistan, together with a sequence of aerial photographs of the same area may contribute to the study of the establishment of BSCs and understanding their role in vegetation communities. The fenced-off Karrykul area can serve as a model for the current processes in the vast desert areas in Central Asia, which are underused due to the financial constraints. It is hypothesized that after some 15 years, the role of BSCs changes from a positive (rehabilitating) effect on the first stages of protection, to a negative effect on the structure and biomass of vegetation communities. Therefore, undergrazing, as well as overgrazing, should be considered as a desertification factor.     

Laboratory analysis of the effects of elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide on respiration in biological soil crusts

Metabolic activity of Biological Soil Crusts (BSCs) is principally dependent on moisture availability, but also on temperature and light conditions. Less understood is how BSCs respond to elevated atmospheric CO₂. This paper reports laboratory experimental results of elevated atmospheric CO₂ on carbon fluxes for cyanobacterial BSCs. The study uses newly designed dynamic gas exchange chambers in which the internal atmosphere was controlled. CO₂ flux was monitored during controlled experiments in two phases under simulated rainfall events (2 & 5 mm plus control with no wetting) each lasting 3 days with a dry period in between. Phase 1 subjected crusts to 392 ppm CO₂ (representing ambient level) in dry air; in phase 2, the CO₂ concentration was 801 ppm. Both phases exhibited significant efflux (respiration) of CO₂ immediately after wetting, followed by substantial influx (sequestration) of CO₂. Samples subject to 2 mm wetting sequestered an order of magnitude more C under elevated CO₂ than at ambient CO₂; for samples subject to 5 mm wetting, this increase was threefold. The findings highlight the role of BSCs in future carbon budgets by enabling greater sequestration into dryland soils even under enhanced atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, following both light and heavy rainfall events.     

荒漠人工植被区典型生物土壤结皮的固碳模型研究

生物土壤结皮（BSC）是荒漠生态系统组成和地表景观的重要特征,在荒漠系统碳的源-汇功能中发挥着重要的作用。本文以沙坡头人工植被区两种典型的BSC（苔藓结皮和藻类结皮）为研究对象,通过对土壤水分的连续测定,确定BSC光合和呼吸作用的有效湿润时间及其与土壤水分、温度和太阳辐射的关系,建立了土壤水分驱动下的固碳模型。以2012年5月19—25日为例,计算了苔藓结皮和藻类结皮在试验期间的日固碳量,并估算了两类结皮的年际固碳量。结果表明:苔藓结皮和藻类结皮由于自身水文物理性质的差别显著影响到其下层土壤水分和温度的变化;降雨是BSC固碳活性的重要来源,并且苔藓结皮更容易受到非降雨水（如雾水、凝结水等）的影响而使其固碳潜力大于藻类结皮。初步估算苔藓结皮和藻类结皮的年固碳量分别可以达到33.33 g·m-2·a-1和14.01 g·m-2·a-1,其中由非降雨水所引起的固碳量达到了6.58 g·m-2·a-1和2.65 g·m-2·a-1,分别占到了全年固碳量的19.7%和18.9%。充分肯定了BSC在荒漠人工植被区碳汇的功能。     

Shifts in community structure and function of ammoniaoxidizing archaea in biological soil crusts along a revegetation chronosequence in the Tengger Desert

Metagenomic studies have demonstrated the existence of ammonia-oxidizing archaea(AOA) and revealed they are responsible for ammoxidation in some extreme environments. However, the changes in compositional structure and ammonia-oxidation capacity of AOA communities in biological soil crusts(BSCs) of desert ecosystems remain poorly understood.Here, we utilized Illumina MiSeq sequencing and microbial functional gene array(GeoChip 5.0) to assess the above changes along a 51-year revegetation chronosequence in the Tengger Desert, China. The results showed a significant difference in AOA-community richness between 5-year-old BSCs and older ones. The most dominant phylum during BSC development was Crenarchaeota, and the corresponding species were ammonia-oxidizing_Crenarchaeote and environmental_samples_Crenarchaeota. Network analysis revealed that the positive correlations among dominant taxa increased, and their cooperation was reinforced in AOA communities during BSC succession. Redundancy analysis showed that the dominant factor influencing the change in AOA-community structure was soil texture. GeoChip 5.0 indicated that the amoA gene abundances of AOA and ammonia-oxidizing bacteria(AOB) were basically the same, demonstrating that AOA and AOB played an equally important role during BSCs development. Our study of the long-term succession of BSC demonstrated a persistent response of AOA communities to revegetation development in desert ecosystems.     

生物土壤结皮对荒漠区土壤微生物数量和活性的影响

生物土壤结皮对荒漠生态系统的维持与改良发挥着重要作用。土壤微生物可敏感地指示土壤质量,是衡量荒漠区生态健康程度的重要生物学特征,而对荒漠区生物土壤结皮与土壤微生物关系知之甚少。本研究设计了两组对比试验。一组以腾格里沙漠东南缘的1956、1964、1981、1991年的植被固沙区结皮下的沙丘土壤为对象,以流沙区和天然植被区为对照。另一组以植被固沙区人为干扰生物土壤结皮下的沙丘土壤为研究对象,以未干扰结皮下的沙丘土壤为对照。结果表明：腾格里沙漠东南缘植被固沙区的藻-地衣和藓类结皮均可显著提高土壤可培养微生物的数量和基础呼吸（P<0.05）;适度人为干扰生物土壤结皮不会显著影响土壤可培养微生物的数量和基础呼吸,而严重人为干扰结皮可显著降低土壤可培养微生物的数量和基础呼吸,指示严重人为干扰结皮可导致荒漠区土壤质量下降;土壤可培养微生物的数量和基础呼吸也因结皮演替阶段的不同而有所不同,演替晚期的藓类结皮下土壤微生物数量和基础呼吸显著高于演替早期的藻-地衣结皮（P<0.05）;土壤可培养微生物的数量和土壤基础呼吸与固沙年限均存在显著的正相关关系,随着沙丘固沙年限的增加,结皮层增厚,结皮下土壤微生物数量及基础呼吸显著增加（P<0.05）;生物土壤结皮下土壤可培养微生物数量和基础呼吸呈现显著的季节变化,表现为夏季>秋季和春季>冬季。因此,腾格里沙漠东南缘植被固沙区的生物土壤结皮提高了土壤微生物数量和活性,表明生物土壤结皮有利于荒漠区土壤及荒漠生态系统的恢复。     

Spatial carbon and nitrogen distribution and organic matter characteristics of biological soil crusts in the Negev desert (Israel) along a rainfall gradient

In arid and semi-arid areas biological soil crusts are main contributors to C and N-cycles and the origin of organic matter. Nevertheless systematic studies on the spatial distribution of total organic carbon (TOC) and nitrogen (N) and a characterization of crust organic matter composition are missing. To describe the spatial distribution of TOC and N we examined three soil depths and three relief positions along a steep rainfall gradient. In addition the molecular composition of organic matter was characterized by Pyrolysis-field ionization mass spectrometry.TOC and N concentrations decreased with increasing depth, the effects of the relief followed no clear trend. Surprisingly the amount of TOC and N decreased with increasing rainfall. Stable organic matter compounds were reduced with increasing rainfall. Topcrusts (0–2 mm) showed a relative enrichment in bacteria, as indicated by proportionally larger contents in N-acetylmuramic acid (m/z 167 + 276) than the subcrusts (2–40 mm). These were enrichment in cyanobacteria, as indicated by proportionally larger contents of hexadecadienoic acid (m/z 252).We conclude that the spatial distribution of TOC and N is related to sampling depth and annual precipitation. Organic matter composition and the main biomass contributors in crusts are successfully identified by pyrolysis-field ionization mass spectrometry.     

藓类结皮斑块面积与环境因子的关系

古尔班通古特沙漠生物结皮占该沙漠总面积的30%左右,苔藓结皮是其中的优势者,在防风固沙、捕获隐匿降水和水土保持方面发挥着重要的生态作用。自然状态下,该沙漠苔藓结皮多以镶嵌式或纯群状斑块分布,本文从斑块尺度出发,以斑块面积为指标,分析了该沙漠藓类结皮斑块的分布格局和特征。结果表明:（1）在调查的7 372个藓类结皮斑块中,有6 930个斑块的面积在100 cm2以内,占总斑块数目的94%,面积在100 cm2以上的斑块约为442个,占总斑块数的6%。（2）本研究共调查了143 223 cm2苔藓结皮,其中100 cm2以下的小斑块面积约为57 289 cm2,占总调查面积的40%;其次是大小在100~200 cm2的斑块,面积约为32 941 cm2,占总调查面积的23%;大小在200 cm2以上的斑块面积约为50 128 cm2,占总面积的35%。面积较大的斑块主要分布在沙漠东南部,西北部藓类结皮斑块面积较小,这一变化特征与苔藓结皮在区域尺度的优势发育区一致。（3）藓类结皮斑块面积大小与粒径在0.2 mm以下的土壤含量正相关,大粒径的土壤不利于藓类结皮形成较大的斑块。（4）藓类结皮斑块面积与主要灌丛盖度呈微弱负相关,与土壤有机质、全氮、速效钾、可溶性钙含量显著正相关,这与区域尺度的报道一致。     

The influence of elevation, shrub species, and biological soil crust on fertile islands in the Mojave Desert, USA

We quantified soil nutrients and biological crust cover (bryophytes and lichens) under the canopies of three species of Mojave Desert shrubs and in interspaces between shrubs at three elevations to determine the effects of shrub species, soil crust, and elevation on islands of soil fertility. Means of pH, organic matter, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, nitrogen mineralization, and gravimetric soil moisture are significantly greater in soils under Ambrosia dumosa (Gray) Payne, Larrea tridentata Cov., and Coleogyne ramosissima Torr. than soils from adjacent interspace microhabitats. Although soil moisture and soil organic matter increase by a factor of 1.5 from the low elevation to the high elevation site, the ratio of shrub to interspace concentrations, or the difference in mean soil variables between shrubs and interspaces, is effectively constant and independent of elevation. Total bryophyte and lichen cover is relatively low (24.5%), however, there are 11 species of bryophytes and two species of lichens distributed across three elevations with the highest species richness and cover at the low-elevation site. Bryophyte and lichen cover is correlated with silt but is not related, consistently, to soil nutrients. Overall, the balance of processes controlling spatial aggregation of soil nutrients under shrubs is remarkably insensitive to potential differences in organic inputs among elevations, shrub species, and soil crust surfaces.     

腾格里沙漠不同类型沙丘土壤水分含量与地形-植被因子关系研究

土壤水分是沙区主要的生态限制因子,其分布受气候、地形和植被等众多因素的影响。以腾格里沙漠沙坡头地区3种类型的沙丘（固定沙丘、半固定沙丘和流动沙丘）为研究对象,利用方差分析和冗余分析（RDA）等方法对沙丘不同部位和不同深度土壤水分的分布特征及其与地形-植被因子之间的关系进行了综合分析。结果表明：（1） 不同类型沙丘上0~300 cm的土壤水分随着深度的增加而增加,表层土壤水分的波动程度大于中层和深层。（2） 固定沙丘不同部位及不同深度的土壤水分之间没有明显的差异,半固定沙丘和流动沙丘迎风坡与丘底的土壤水分高于背风坡和丘顶。（3） 固定沙丘上的土壤水分受地形-植被因子的影响较半固定沙丘和流动沙丘小,影响固定沙丘土壤水分的主要因子有坡向、高差和灌木多度。（4） 地形-植被因子与研究区绝大多数半固定沙丘和流动沙丘的土壤水分均有负相关关系。研究揭示了腾格里沙漠土壤水分的分布规律及其与地形-植被因子的关系,对制定相应的防风固沙措施以及建立科学合理的植物固沙模式有积极的指导作用。     

生物结皮中齿肋赤藓叶片毛尖对植株含水量及水分散失的影响

采用相对含水量、含水率、蒸散率、累积蒸散率等指标研究了古尔班通古特沙漠生物结皮中优势藓类齿肋赤藓(Syntrichia caninervis Mitt.)叶片毛尖对其离体植株含水量及水分散失的影响.结果表明:(1)虽然毛尖仅占植株重量的4.77％,但水合过程中毛尖内部及附属齿状芒刺均充分吸水,毛尖的存在使植株饱和水量增...     

古尔班通古特沙漠南缘风沙土土壤水分特征与毛管水最大上升高度

为确定古尔班通古特沙漠南缘地下水深埋区毛管上升水的最大上升高度,对划分固沙植物水分来源提供理论依据,于2016年3月～2018年11月,采用中子仪法对试验地0～10 m土层土壤含水量进行观测,分析沙丘不同坡位土壤含水量的季节变化情况,并利用最大分子持水量与土壤含水量曲线交会法确定试验地毛管水的最大上升高度。结果表明:沙丘不同坡位0～130 cm土层的土壤含水量受外界气象因素影响较大,随季节变化规律明显;130 cm土层以下至570～760 cm土层为土壤含水量较为稳定的干沙层;而570～760 cm以下土层的土壤含水量主要受地下水水位波动和毛管上升水的影响,其含水量变化上界可看作是毛管水的最大上升高度。试验地的最大分子持水量为0.026 1 cm3·cm-3,且沙丘不同坡位毛管水的最大上升高度分布在250～290 cm之间。     

黄土高原生物措施减水减沙效益动态分析

为进一步认识黄土高原水土保持措施效益的动态变化特征,使用11个不同水土保持生物措施下的径流小区资料,从产流降雨的角度,分析了农(作物)、草、林灌三种不同生物措施减水减沙作用的年际和年内变化。结果表明,随着年汛期产流降雨的增加,年减沙量与年减水量呈S型增长趋势,农、草类的年减水减沙率有变稳定的趋势,而林灌类的减水减沙率随年汛期产流降雨的增加变化不大;由于农事和农作物的生长特点,相对于林灌类,农、草类年内减水减沙主要集中于7、8月份。研究结果可为进一步认识水土保持措施减水减沙效应、水土保持措施的合理配置和布局提供依据。