On the petrology and structure of a gravitionally differentiated moon of fission origin

In a previous paper, it was shown that the basic properties and the developmental history of a gravitationally differentiated Moon of fission origin match those known for the Moon. In the first part of this report, the models of a differentiated Moon are critically reviewed based on second order considerations of some of the chemical systems used to develope the earlier models and based on new lunar data. As a result, slightly updated models are developed and the results indicate that a Moon of fission origin has a feldspar rich crust (≈70% Or_0.8Ab_5.3An_93.9 with ≈30% pyroxene and olivine) reaching an average depth of ≈65 km. A KREEP rich layer is located at the interface of the crust and the upper mantle. The upper mantle consists of peridotite (≈80% Wo₁₀En₇₀Fs₂₀ and ≈20% Fo_75–80 with ≈3% Al₂O₃ and ≈ 2% TiO₂) and reaches a depth of 300–400 km. Below 300–400 km lies a dunite (≈Fo₉₅) lower mantle. A simple model for the distribution of K, U and Th (and by inference, KREEP) in the differentiated Moon model is developed using a distribution coefficient of 0.1 for the three elements. This coefficient is derived from published data on the distribution of U in Apollo 11 basalts. The simple model successfully accounts for the observed K, U and Th contents of the various mare basalts and upland rocks and yields a heat flow of 21 erg cm^?2s^?1 for the Moon. A model for the fine structure of the peridotite upper mantle of the model Moon is developed based on the TiO₂ and trace element variations observed in the various mare basalts. It is proposed that the upper mantle is rhythmically banded on the scale of 10's of km and that this banding leads to local variations of a factor of ±3 in the K, U and Th content, _-10 ⁺⁵ in the TiO₂ content and _-∞ ⁺² in the olivine content of the peridotite. It is also proposed that this banding leads to large scale horizontal inhomogenuities in the composition of the upper mantle. It is also shown that the formation of the primitive suite of upland rocks is easily explained by the cumulation of plagioclase, which carried varying amounts of pyroxene, olivine and melt with it, during the peritectic crystallization of the last 20% of the differentiating Moon. It is found that the 100 Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratios of the mafics and the An contents of the plagioclases of the rocks are controlled by several factors, the most important of which is the ratio of melt to crystals which together formed the various upland rocks. The inverse relationship between the An contents and the Mg contents of the upland rocks is a direct consequence of the differentiation sequence proposed. The results and models presented in this paper further support the hypothesis that the Moon formed as a result of fission from the proto-Earth.     

On the origin of the moon by rotational fission

Based on simple CIPW norms for the proposed terrestrial upper mantle material, it is shown that if the Moon fissioned from the Earth and gravitationally differentiated, it could have a 72 km thick anorthosite (An₉₇) crust, a calcium poor (3.8% by weight) pyroxenite upper mantle 100 Mg/Mg + Fe = 75 to 80) ending at a depth of 313 km and a dunite (Fo_{93_95}) lower mantle below a depth of 313 km. Refinements of these simple norm models, based on the cooling history, crystallization sequence and the variations of the 100 Mg/Mg + Fe ratio of the liquid and crystals during the crystallization sequence, indicate that the final form of such a Moon could have the following properties: (1) a primitive, cumulate anorthosite - minor troctolite crust with intrusive and extrusive feldspathic basalts and KREEP rich norites; the thickness of this crust would be 75 km; (2) a zone in the bottom of the crust and the top of the upper mantle which is rich in KREEP, the incompatible elements, silica, and possibly voltiles; this zone would be the source area for the upland feldspathic basalts, KREEP rich norites and KREEP and silica rich fluids; (3) an upper mantle between the depths of 75 km and 350 to 400 km which consists of peridotite containing 80–85% pyroxene (Wo₁₀En_{68_72}Fs_{18_22}) and 15–20% olivine (Fo_{75_80}); the Al₂O₃ content of the upper mantle is 3%; the peridotite layer would be the source area for mare basalts and; (4) a lower mantle below a depth of 350–400 km which consists of dunite (Fo_{93_97}).The cooling history of such a moon indicates that the primitive anorthosite crust would have been completely formed within 10⁸ yr after fission. The extrusion and intrusion of upland basalts and KREEP rich norites and the metamorphism of the crustal rocks via KREEP and silica rich fluids would have ended about 4 × 10⁹ yr ago when cooling well below the solidus reached a depth of 150 km. As cooling continied, the only source of magmas after 4 × 10⁹ yr ago would have been the peridotite upper mantle, i.e. the source area of the mare basalts. Extrusion of mare basalts ended when cooling below the solidus reached the top of the refractory dunite lower mantle 3-3.3 × 10⁹ yr ago.Thus, it is shown that the chemistry, primary lithology, structure and developmental history of a fissioned Moon readily match those known for the real Moon. As such, the models presented in this paper strongly support the fission origin of the Moon.Guest Scientist, supported by the Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung.Permanent Address.     

Basaltic magmatism and the bulk composition of the moon

The lunar interior is comprised of two major petrological provinces: (1) an outer zone several hundred km thick which experienced partial melting and crystallization differentiation 4.4–4.6 b.y. ago to form the lunar crust together with an underlying complementary zone of ultramafic cumulates and residua, and (2) the primordial deep interior which was the source region for mare basalts (3.2–3.8 b.y.) and had previously been contaminated to varying degrees with highly fractionated material derived from the 4.4–4.6 b.y. differentiation event. In both major petrologic provinces, basaltic magmas have been produced by partial melting. The chemical characteristics and high-pressure phase relationships of these magmas can be used to constrain the bulk compositions of their respective source regions.Primitive low-Ti mare basalts (e.g., 12009, 12002, 15555 and Green Glass) possessing high normative olivine and high Mg and Cr contents, provide the most direct evidence upon the composition of the primordial deep lunar interior. This composition, as estimated on the basis of high pressure equilibria displayed by the above basalts, combined with other geochemical criteria, is found to consist of orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene + olivine with total pyroxenes > olivine, 100 MgO/(MgO + FeO) = 75–80, about 4% of CaO and Al₂O₃ and 2× chondritic abundances of REE, U and Th. This composition is similar to that of the earth's mantle except for a higher pyroxene/olivine ratio and lower 100 MgO/(MgO + FeO).The lunar crust is believed to have formed by plagioclase elutriation within a vast ocean of parental basaltic magma. The composition of the latter is found experimentally by removing liquidus plagioclase from the observed mean upper crust (gabbroic anorthosite) composition, until the resulting composition becomes multiply saturated with plagioclase and a ferromagnesian phase (olivine). This parental basaltic composition is almost identical with terrestrial oceanic tholeiites, except for partial depletion in the two most volatile components, Na₂ and SiO₂. Similarity between these two most abundant classes of lunar and terrestrial basaltic magmas strongly implies corresponding similarities between their source regions. The bulk composition of the outer 400 km of the Moon as constrained by the 4.6-4.4 b.y. parental basaltic magma is found to be peridotitic, with olivine > pyroxene, 100 MgO/ (MgO + FeO) 86, and about 2× chondritic abundances of Ca, Al and REE. The Moon thus appears to have a zoned structure, with the deep interior (below 400 km) possessing somewhat higher contents of FeO and SiO₂ than the outer 400 km. This zoned model, derived exclusively on petrological grounds, provides a quantitative explanation of the Moon's mean density, moment of inertia and seismic velocity profile.The bulk composition of the entire Moon, thus obtained, is very similar to the pyrolite model composition for the Earth's mantle, except that the Moon is depleted in Na (and other volatile elements) and somewhat enriched in iron. The similarity in major element composition extends also to the abundances of REE, U and Th. These compositional similarities, combined with the identity in oxygen isotope ratios between the Moon and the Earth's mantle, are strongly suggestive of a common genetic relationship.     

Petrogenesis of lunar meteorite Northwest Africa 2977: Constraints from in situ microprobe results

Abstract– Northwest Africa (NWA) 2977 is an olivine‐gabbro lunar meteorite that has a distinctly different petrographic texture from other lunar basalts. We studied this rock with a series of in situ analytical methods. NWA 2977 consists mainly of olivine and pyroxene with minor plagioclase. It shows evidence of intense shock metamorphism, locally as high as shock‐stage S6. Olivine adjacent to a melt vein has been partially transformed into ringwoodite and Al,Ti‐rich chromite grains have partially transformed into their high‐pressure polymorph (possibly CaTi₂O₄‐structure). Olivine in NWA 2977 contains two types of lithic inclusions. One type is present as Si,Al‐rich melt inclusions that are composed of glass and, in most cases, dendritic pyroxene. The other type is mafic and composed of relatively coarse‐grained augite with accessory chromite, RE‐merrillite, and baddeleyite. Two Si,Al‐rich melt inclusions are heavy rare earth elements (REE) enriched, whereas the mafic inclusion has high REE concentrations and a KREEP‐like pattern. The mafic inclusion could be a relict fragment captured during the ascent of the parent magma of NWA 2977, whereas the Si,Al‐rich inclusions may represent the original NWA 2977 melt. The calculated whole‐rock composition has a KREEP‐like REE pattern, suggesting that NWA 2977 has an affinity to KREEP rocks. Baddeleyite has recorded a young crystallization age of 3123 ± 7 Ma (2σ), which is consistent with results from previous whole‐rock and mineral Sm‐Nd and Rb‐Sr studies. The petrography, mineralogy, trace element geochemistry, and young crystallization age of NWA 2977 support the possibility of pairing between NWA 2977 and the olivine‐gabbro portion of NWA 773.     

Petrogenesis of Chang'E-5 young mare low-Ti basalts

The regolith samples returned by the Chang'E-5 mission (CE-5) contain the youngest radiometrically dated mare basaltic clasts, which provide an opportunity to elucidate the magmatic activities on the Moon during the late Eratosthenian. In this study, detailed petrographic observations and comprehensive geochemical analyses were performed on the CE-5 basaltic clasts. The major element concentrations in individual plagioclase grain of the CE-5 basalts may vary slightly from core to rim, whereas pyroxene has clear chemical zonation. The crystallization sequence of the CE-5 mare basalts was determined using petrographic and geochemical relations in the basaltic clasts. In addition, both fractional crystallization (FC) and assimilation and fractional crystallization models were applied to simulate the chemical evolution of melt equilibrated with plagioclase in CE-5 basalts. Our results reveal that the melt had a TiO₂ content of ~3 wt% and an Mg# of ~45 at the onset of plagioclase crystallization, suggesting a low-Ti parental melt of the CE-5 basalts. The relatively high FeO content (>14.5 wt%) in melt equilibrated with plagioclase could have resulted in extensive crystallization of ilmenite, unlike in Apollo low-Ti basalts. Furthermore, our calculations showed that the geochemical evolution of CE-5 basaltic melt could not have occurred in a closed system. On the contrary, the CE-5 basalts could have assimilated mineral, rock, and glass fragments that have higher concentrations of KREEP elements (potassium, rare earth elements, and phosphorus) in the regolith during magma flow on the Moon's surface. The presence of the KREEP signature in the CE-5 basalts is consistent with literature remote sensing data obtained from the CE-5 landing site. These KREEP-bearing fragments could originate from KREEP basaltic melts that may have been emplaced at the landing site earlier than the CE-5 basalts.     

Experimental petrology,crystallization history,and parental magma characteristics of olivine‐phyric shergottite NWA 1068: Implications for the petrogenesis of “enriched” olivine‐phyric shergottites

Abstract– Northwest Africa (NWA) 1068 is one of the few olivine‐phyric shergottites (e.g., NWA 1068, Larkman Nunatak [LAR] 06319, and Roberts Massif [RBT] 04262) that is not depleted in light rare earth elements (LREE). Its REE pattern is similar to that of the basaltic shergottite Shergotty, suggesting a possible connection between the olivine‐phyric and the basaltic shergottites. To test this possible link, we have investigated the high‐pressure near‐liquidus phase equilibria for the NWA 1068 meteorite bulk composition. Our results show that the NWA 1068 bulk composition does not represent an unmodified mantle‐derived melt; the olivine and pyroxene in our near‐liquidus experiments are more magnesian than in the rock itself, which suggests that NWA 1068 contains cumulate minerals (extra olivine). We have then used these experimental results combined with the pyroxene compositions in NWA 1068 to constrain the possible high‐pressure crystallization history of the parental magma. These results suggest that NWA 1068 had a complex polybaric history. Finally, we have calculated a model parental magma composition for the NWA 1068 meteorite. The calculated parental magma is an evolved basaltic composition which is too ferroan to be a primitive melt directly derived from the mantle. We suggest that it ponded and crystallized at approximately the base of the crust. This provided an opportunity for the magma to become contaminated by an “enriched” crustal component prior to crystallization. The results and modeling from these experiments are applicable not only to the NWA 1068 meteorite, but also to LAR 06319 and possibly any other enriched olivine‐phyric shergottite.     

The source and origin of the exotic component and kreep-rich materials on the moon

Trace element concentrations in the lunar soils are inversely correlated to the grain size -i.e., the finer the grain size the higher the trace element content. These enrichments are attributed to the combined effects of comminution of local rocks and a preferential addition of the exotic component to the finer grain sizes. The exotic component appears similar to Fra Mauro materials and there is a strong correlation between the percentage of exotic component and distance from Fra Mauro site. Based on trace element characteristics, it is suggested that exotic component is finely comminuted KREEP and is dispersed on the lunar surface from the Fra Mauro and other high gamma-ray active regions in the Imbrium-Procellarum regions. The major and trace element chemistry of these materials is considered to be due to impact melting of trace-element-rich accessory phases followed by variable dilution with partial melts of the bulk solid phases of plagioclase, low Ca pyroxene and olivine. The generation of KREEP and exotic component is an impact produced local process and need not imply a global occurrence of radioactive crust on the Moon.     

Martian meteorite Tissint records unique petrogenesis among the depleted shergottites

Tissint, a new unaltered piece of Martian volcanic materials, is the most silica‐poor and Mg‐Fe‐rich igneous rock among the “depleted” olivine‐phyric shergottites. Fe‐Mg zoning of olivine suggests equilibrium growth (<0.1 °C h^?1) in the range of Fo_80–56 and olivine overgrowth (Fo_55–18) through a process of rapid disequilibrium (~1.0–5.0 °C h^?1). The spatially extended (up to 600 μm) flat‐top Fe‐Mg profiles of olivine indicates that the early‐stage cooling rate of Tissint was slower than the other shergottites. The chemically metastable outer rim of olivine (55) consists of oscillatory phosphorus zoning at the impact‐induced melt domains and grew rapidly compared to the early to intermediate‐stage crystallization of the Tissint bulk. High‐Ca pyroxene to low‐Ca pyroxene and high‐Ca pyroxene to plagioclase ratios of Tissint are more comparable to the enriched basaltic and enriched olivine‐phyric shergottites. Dominance of augite over plagioclase induced augite to control the Ca‐buffer in the residual melt suppressing the plagioclase crystallization, which also caused a profound effect on the Al‐content in the late‐crystallized pyroxenes. Mineral chemical stability, phase‐assemblage saturation, and pressure–temperature path of evolution indicates that the parent magma entered the solidus and left the liquidus field at a depth of 40–80 km in the upper mantle. Petrogenesis of Tissint appears to be similar to LAR 06319, an enriched olivine‐phyric shergottite, during the early to intermediate stage of crystallization. A severe shock‐induced deformation resulted in remelting (10–15 vol%), recrystallization (most Fe‐rich phases), and exhumation of Tissint in a time scale of 1–8 yr. Tissint possesses some distinct characteristics, e.g., impact‐induced melting and deformation, forming phosphorus‐rich recrystallization rims of olivine, and shock‐induced melt domains without relative enrichment of LREEs compared to the bulk; and shared characteristics, e.g., modal composition and magmatic evolution with the enriched basaltic shergottites, evidently reflecting unique mantle source in comparison to the clan of the depleted members.     

Crystal‐bearing lunar spherules: Impact melting of the Moon's crust and implications for the origin of meteoritic chondrules

Abstract— Crystal‐bearing lunar spherules (CLSs) in lunar breccia (14313, 14315, 14318), soil (68001, 24105), and impact‐melt rock (62295) samples can be classified into two types: feldspathic and olivine‐rich. Feldspathic CLSs contain equant, tabular, or acicular plagioclase grains set in glass or a pyroxene‐olivine mesostasis; the less common olivine‐rich CLSs contain euhedral or skeletal olivine set in glass, or possess a barred‐olivine texture. Bulk‐chemical and mineral‐chemical data strongly suggest that feldspathic CLSs formed by impact melting of mixtures of ferroan anorthosite and Mg‐suite rocks that compose the feldspathic crust of the Moon. It is probable that olivine‐rich CLSs also formed by impact melting, but some appear to have been derived from distinctively magnesian lunar materials, atypical of the Moon's crust. Some CLSs contain reversely‐zoned “relic” plagioclase grains that were not entirely melted during CLS formation, thin (≤5 μm thick) rims of troilite or phosphate, and chemical gradients in glassy mesostases attributed to metasomatism in a volatile‐rich (Na‐K‐P‐rich) environment. Crystal‐bearing lunar spherules were rimmed and metasomatized prior to brecciation. Compound CLS objects are also present; these formed by low‐velocity collisions in an environment, probably an ejecta plume, that contained numerous melt droplets. Factors other than composition were responsible for producing the crystallinity of the CLSs. We agree with previous workers that relatively slow cooling rates and long ballistic travel times were critical features that enabled these impact‐melt droplets to partially or completely crystallize in free‐flight. Moreover, incomplete melting of precursor materials formed nucleation sites that aided subsequent crystallization. Clearly, CLSs do not resemble meteoritic chondrules in all ways. The two types of objects had different precursors and did not experience identical rimming processes, and vapor fractionation appears to have played a less important role in establishing the compositions of CLSs than of chondrules. However, the many detailed similarities between CLSs and chondrules indicate that it is more difficult to rule out an origin for some chondrules by impact melting than some have previously argued. Differences between CLSs, chondrules, and their host rocks possibly can be reconciled with an impact‐melt origin for some chondrules when different precursors, the higher gravity of the Moon compared to chondrite parent bodies, and the likely presence of nebular gas during chondrule formation are taken into account.     

Experimental petrology of the basaltic shergottite Yamato‐980459: Implications for the thermal structure of the Martian mantle

Abstract— The Martian meteorite Yamato (Y‐) 980459 is an olivine‐phyric shergottite. It has a very primitive character and may be a primary melt of the Martian mantle. We have conducted crystallization experiments on a synthetic Y‐980459 composition at Martian upper mantle conditions in order to test the primary mantle melt hypothesis. Results of these experiments indicate that the cores of the olivine megacrysts in Y‐980459 are in equilibrium with a melt of bulk rock composition, suggesting that these megacrysts are in fact phenocrysts that grew from a magma of the bulk rock composition. Multiple saturation of the melt with olivine and a low‐calcium pyroxene occurs at approximately 12 ± 0.5 kbar and 1540 ± 10°C, suggesting that the meteorite represents a primary melt that separated from its mantle source at a depth of ?100 km. Several lines of evidence suggest that the Y‐980459 source underwent extensive melting prior to and/or during the magmatic event that produced the Y‐980459 parent magma. When factored into convective models of the Martian interior, the high temperature indicated for the upper Martian mantle and possibly high melt fraction for the Y‐980459 magmatic event suggests a significantly higher temperature at the core‐mantle boundary than previously estimated.     

Redistribution of elements in the heavily shocked Yanzhuang chondrite

Abstract— Compositions of metal, sulfide, olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase/plagioclase glass were studied for the melted and unmelted parts of the heavily shocked H6(S6) chondrite‐Yanzhuang. We found that the partitioning of some trace elements significantly changed between the 2 parts; compared with the corresponding minerals in the unmelted part, Ga is enriched in the metal, Co, Cr, and Zn are enriched in the sulfide, Cr is enriched in olivine and pyroxene, and Ti is enriched in the plagioclase glass of the melt pocket. These detailed studies of the mineral phases put constraints on 3 important parameters (temperature, pressure, and duration) associated with the post‐shock melting process. The coexistence of melted and unmelted olivine in the melt pocket of Yanzhuang implies a peak temperature after shock that approaches the melting point of olivine. The lack of Ni in the olivine crystallized from a melt suggests crystallization of olivine at pressures below 10 kbar. The resetting of Ga partitioning between metal and silicate in the melt pocket indicates that the interval from the peak temperature after shock to the crystallization of metal‐sulfide and plagioclase glass in the melted part of Yanzhuang is longer than 500 sec.     

Primitive olivine‐phyric shergottite NWA 5789: Petrography,mineral chemistry,and cooling history imply a magma similar to Yamato‐980459

Knowledge of Martian igneous basaltic compositions is crucial for constraining mantle evolution, including early differentiation and mantle convection. Primitive magmas provide direct information about their mantle source regions, but most Martian meteorites either contain cumulate olivine or crystallized from fractionated melts. The recently discovered Martian meteorite Northwest Africa (NWA) 5789 is an olivine‐phyric shergottite. NWA 5789 has special significance among the Martian meteorites because it appears to represent one of the most magnesian Martian magmas known, other than Yamato (Y) 980459. Its most magnesian olivine cores (Fo₈₅) are in Mg‐Fe equilibrium with a magma of the bulk rock composition, suggesting that the bulk represents a magma composition. Based on the Al/Ti ratio of its pyroxenes, we infer that the rock began to crystallize at a high pressure consistent with conditions in Mars’ lower crust/upper mantle. It continued and completed its crystallization closer to the surface, where cooling was rapid and produced a mesostasis of radiating sprays of plagioclase and pyroxene. The mineralogy, petrology, mineral chemistry, and bulk rock composition of NWA 5789 are very similar to those of Y‐980459. The similarities between the two meteorites suggest that NWA 5789 (like Y‐980459) represents a primitive, mantle‐derived magma composition. They also suggest the possibility that NWA 5789 and Y‐980459 formed in the same lava flow. However, based on the mineralogy and texture of its mesostasis, NWA 5789 must have cooled more slowly than Y‐980459. NWA 5789 will help elucidate the igneous geology and geochemistry of Mars.     

Magmatic inclusions and felsic clasts in the Dar al Gani 319 polymict ureilite

Abstract— Magmatic inclusions occur in type II ureilite clasts (olivine‐orthopyroxene‐augite assemblages with essentially no carbon) and in a large isolated plagioclase clast in the Dar al Gani (DaG) 319 polymict ureilite. Type I ureilite clasts (olivine‐pigeonite assemblages with carbon), as well as other lithic and mineral clasts in this meteorite, are described in Ikeda et al.(2000). The magmatic inclusions in the type II ureilite clasts consist mainly of magnesian augite and glass. They metastably crystallized euhedral pyroxenes, resulting in feldspar component‐enriched glass. On the other hand, the magmatic inclusions in the large plagioclase clast consist mainly of pyroxene and plagioclase, with a mesostasis. They crystallized with a composition along the cotectic line between the pyroxene and plagioclase liquidus fields. DaG 319 also contains felsic lithic clasts that represent various types of igneous lithologies. These are the rare components not found in the common monomict ureilites. Porphyritic felsic clasts, the main type, contain phenocrysts of plagioclase and pyroxene, and their groundmass consists mainly of plagioclase, pyroxene, and minor phosphate, ilmenite, chromite, and/or glass. Crystallization of these porphyritic clasts took place along the cotectic line between the pyroxene and plagioclase fields. Pilotaxitic felsic clasts crystallized plagioclase laths and minor interstitial pyroxene under metastable conditions, and the mesostasis is extremely enriched in plagioclase component in spite of the ubiquitous crystallization of plagioclase laths in the clasts. We suggest that there are two crystallization trends, pyroxene‐metal and pyroxene‐plagioclase trends, for the magmatic inclusions and felsic lithic clasts in DaG 319. The pyroxene‐metal crystallization trend corresponds to the magmatic inclusions in the type II ureilite clasts and the pilotaxitic felsic clasts, where crystallization took place under reducing and metastable conditions, suppressing precipitation of plagioclase. The pyroxene‐plagioclase crystallization trend corresponds to the magmatic inclusions in the isolated plagioclase clast and the porphyritic felsic clasts. This trend developed under oxidizing conditions in magma chambers within the ureilite parent body. The felsic clasts may have formed mainly from albite component‐rich silicate melts produced by fractional partial melting of chondritic precursors. The common monomict ureilites, type I ureilites, may have formed by the fractional partial melting of alkali‐bearing chondritic precursors. However, type II ureilites may have formed as cumulates from a basaltic melt.     

Contribution of the mantle to the lunar asymmetry

Evidence of three kinds indicates a lunar compositional asymmetry: (1) mare basalts are much more abundant on the near side; (2) the incompatible rich KREEP component is mainly observed in near-side soils; and (3) materials on the far side are less dense than those of the near side, as indicated by the 2-km offset between the center of mass and center of figure. Recent models to explain the 2-km offset are based on near-side-far-side differences in the thickness of crustal units. The most widely discussed model calls for a thickness of anorthosite ～ 24 km greater on the far side than on the near side, but no satisfactory method of generating such a large difference has been proposed. We suggest that much of the offset reflects longitudinal differences in mantle composition primarily resulting from earlier (or more rapid) crystallization of the magma ocean on what is now the far-side hemisphere. As a result, the far-side mantle would be more magnesian and thus less dense than the near-side mantle. Differences in the amount of anorthosite or the amount of crustal porosity probably make relatively small contributions to the offset. We have evaluated four scenarios: (a) If the anorthositic crust initially formed a floating continent over what is now the near side, this would have provided thermal insulation that would have reduced the near-side cooling rate. (b) Crystallization of the magma ocean while the Moon was near the Earth would have resulted in heating by earthshine, thus reducing the near-side cooling rate. (c) An asymmetric bombardment could have preferentially heated the near side. (d) A suggestion by D. Stevenson, collection of metal from the magma ocean in one hemisphere would have pushed the unmelted “core” into an asymmetric position, and resulted in earlier magma ocean crystallization in the deeper hemisphere. Our assessment is that the asymmetric “core” hypothesis is the most plausible, that the floating continent mechanism is possible, and that the Earthshine and symmetric bombardment mechanisms are not viable. An attractive feature of the asymmetric- mantle model is that it also accounts for the asymmetries in the distribution of KREEP and mare basalts. More rapid crystallization of the far side would leave urKREEP, the last dregs of the magma ocean, concentrated under the near-side crust, thus leading to the observed tendency for KREEP to be found on the near side surface. Further, the concentration of urKREEP-associated radiactive elements on the near side would result in a much lower rate of conductive cooling of the near-side mantle and thus a much longer period of basalt extrusion on the near side. The formation of basalts would also be enhanced by the presence of more fusible materials in the near-side mantle.     

Shock‐induced melting,recrystallization, and exsolution in plagioclase from the Martian lherzolitic shergottite GRV 99027

Abstract— Plagioclase in the Martian lherzolitic shergottite Grove Mountains (GRV) 99027 was shocked, melted, and recrystallized. The recrystallized plagioclase contains lamellae of pyroxene, olivine, and minor ilmenite (<1 μm wide). Both the pyroxene and the olivine inclusions enclosed in plagioclase and grains neighboring the plagioclase were partially melted into plagioclase melt pools. The formation of these lamellar inclusions in plagioclase is attributed to exsolution from recrystallizing melt. Distinct from other Martian meteorites, GRV 99027 contains no maskelynite but does contain recrystallized plagioclase. This shows that the meteorite experienced a slower cooling than maskelynite‐bearing meteorites. We suggest that the parent rock of GRV 99027 could have been embedded in hot rocks, which facilitated a more protracted cooling history.     

Indigenous abundances of siderophile elements in the lunar highlands: Implications for the origin of the moon

Substantial indigenous abundances of siderophile elements have been found to be present in the lunar highlands. The abundances of 13 siderophile elements in the parental magma of the highlands crust were estimated by using a simple model whereby the Apollo 16 highlands were regarded as being a mixture of three components (i.e. cumulus plagioclase + intercumulus magma that was parentel to the highlands crust + meteoritic contamination by ordinary chondrites). The parental magma of the highlands was found to possess abundances of siderophile elements that were generally similar to the abundances of the unequivocally indigenous siderophile elements in primitive, low-Ti mare basalts. This striking similarity implies that these estimated abundances in the parental highlands magma are truly indigenous, and also supports the basic validity of our simple model.It is shown that metal/silicate fractionation within the Moon cannot have been the cause of the siderophile element abundances in the parental highlands magma and primitive, low-Ti mare basalts. The relative abundances of the indigenous siderophile elements in highland and mare samples seem, instead, to be the result of complex processes which operatedprior to the Moon's accretion.The abundances of the relatively involatile, siderophile elements in the parental highlands magma are strikingly similar to the abundances observed in terrestrial oceanic tholeiites. Furthermore, the abundances of the relatively volatile, siderophile elements in the parental highlands magma are also systematically related to the corresponding abundances in terrestrial oceanic tholeiites. In fact, the parental magma of the lunar highlands can be essentially regarded as having been a volatile-depleted, terrestrial oceanic tholeiite.The complex, siderophile element fractionations in the Earth's upper mantle are thought to be the result of core segregation. However, it is well-known that the siderophile element abundances do not correspond to expectations based solely upon equilibration of metal/silicate at low-pressures, as evidenced by the over-abundances of Au, Re, Ni, Co and Cu. Ringwood (1977a) has suggested that the siderophile element abundances in the Earth's upper mantle are the product of equilibration at very high-pressures between the mantle and a segregating core that contained substantial quantities of an element with a low atomic weight, such as oxygen. Comparable processes cannot have operated within the Moon due to its small internal pressures and the very small size of its possible core. Therefore, the fact that the Moon exhibits a systematic resemblance to the Earth's upper mantle is highly significant.The origin of the Moon is discussed in the context of these results. The possibility that depletion of siderophile elements occurred in an earlier generation of differentiated planetesimals similar to those which formed the basaltic achondrites, stony-irons, and irons is examined but can be dismissed on several grounds. It seems that the uniquely terrestrial siderophile signature within the Moon can be explained only if the Moon was derived from the Earth's mantle subsequent to core-formation.Paper dedicated to Professor Hannes Alfvén on the occasion of his 70th birthday, 30 May, 1978.     

Spinel assemblages in lunar meteorites Graves Nunataks 06157 and Dhofar 1528: Implications for impact melting and equilibration in the Moon's upper mantle

Magnesium‐rich spinel assemblages occur in the two lunar vitric breccia meteorites—Dhofar (Dho) 1528 and Graves Nunataks (GRA) 06157. Dho 1528 contains up to ~0.7 mm cumulate Mg‐rich spinel crystals associated with Mg‐rich olivine, Mg‐ and Al‐rich pyroxene, plagioclase, and rare cordierite. Using thermodynamic calculations of these mineral assemblages, we constrain equilibration depths and discuss an origin of these lithologies in the upper mantle of the Moon. In contrast, small, 10 to 20 μm spinel phenocryst assemblages in glassy melt rock clasts in Dho 1528 and GRA 06157 formed from the impact melting of Mg‐rich rocks. Some of these spinel phenocrysts match compositional constraints for spinel associated with “pink spinel anorthosites” inferred from remote sensing data. However, such spinel phenocrysts in meteorites and Apollo samples are typically associated with significant amounts of olivine ± pyroxene that exceed the compositional constraints for pink spinel anorthosites. We conclude that the remotely sensed “pink spinel anorthosites” have not been observed in the collections of lunar rocks. Moreover, we discuss impact‐excavation scenarios for the spinel‐bearing assemblages in Dhofar 1528 and compare the bulk rock composition of Dho 1528 to strikingly similar compositions of Luna 20 samples that contain ejecta from the Crisium impact basin.     

Estimation of trace element concentrations in the lunar magma ocean using mineral‐ and metal‐silicate melt partition coefficients

This study uses experimentally determined plagioclase‐melt D values to estimate the trace element concentrations of Sr, Hf, Ga, W, Mo, Ru, Pd, Au, Ni, and Co in a crystallizing lunar magma ocean at the point of plagioclase flotation. Similarly, experimentally determined metal‐silicate partition experiments combined with a composition model for the Moon are used to constrain the concentrations of W, Mo, Ru, Pd, Au, Ni, and Co in the lunar magma ocean at the time of core formation. The metal‐silicate derived lunar mantle estimates are generally consistent with previous estimates for the concentration of these elements in the lunar mantle. Plagioclase‐melt derived concentrations for Sr, Ga, Ru, Pd, Au, Ni, and Co are also consistent with prior estimates. Estimates for Hf, W, and Mo, however, are higher. These elements may be concentrated in the residual liquid during fractional crystallization due to their incompatibility. Alternatively, the apparent enrichment could reflect the inappropriate use of bulk anorthosite data, rather than data for plagioclase separates.     

Petrography,mineral chemistry,and crystallization history of olivine‐phyric shergottite NWA 6234: A new melt composition

Knowledge of Martian igneous and mantle compositions is crucial for understanding Mars' mantle evolution, including early differentiation, mantle convection, and the chemical alteration at the surface. Primitive magmas provide the most direct information about their mantle source regions, but most Martian meteorites either contain cumulate olivine or crystallized from fractionated melts. The new Martian meteorite Northwest Africa (NWA) 6234 is an olivine‐phyric shergottite. Its most magnesian olivine cores (Fo₇₈) are in Mg‐Fe equilibrium with a magma of the bulk rock composition, suggesting that it represents a melt composition. Thermochemical calculations show that NWA 6234 not only represents a melt composition but is a primitive melt derived from an approximately Fo₈₀ mantle. Thus, NWA 6234 is similar to NWA 5789 and Y 980459 in the sense that all three are olivine‐phyric shergottites and represent primitive magma compositions. However, NWA 6234 is of special significance because it represents the first olivine‐phyric shergottite from a primitive ferroan magma. On the basis of Al/Ti ratio of pyroxenes in NWA 6234, the minor components in olivine and merrillite, and phosphorus zoning of olivine, we infer that the rock crystallized completely at pressures consistent with conditions in Mars' upper crust. The textural intergrowths of the two phosphates (merrillite and apatite) indicate that at a very last stage of crystallization, merrillite reacted with an OH‐Cl‐F‐rich melt to form apatite. As this meteorite crystallized completely at depth and never erupted, it is likely that its apatite compositions represent snapshots of the volatile ratios of the source region without being affected by degassing processes, which contain high OH‐F content.     

Petrogenesis of the new lherzolitic shergottite Grove Mountains 99027: Constraints of petrography,mineral chemistry,and rare earth elements

Abstract— We report petrography, mineral chemistry, and microdistribution of rare earth elements (REE) in a new lherzolitic shergottite, Grove Mountains (GRV) 99027. The textural relationship and REE patterns of minerals suggest precipitation of cumulus olivine and chromite, followed by equilibrium crystallization of a closed system with a bulk composition of the inferred intercumulus melt. Subsolidus equilibrium temperatures of pyroxenes and olivine range from 1100 to 1210 °C, based on a two‐pyroxene thermometry and Ca partitioning between augite and olivine. Oxygen fugacity of the parent magma is 1.5–2.5 (av. 2.0 ± 0.4) log units below the quartz‐fayalite‐magnetite (QFM) buffer at 960–1360 °C, according to the olivine‐orthopyroxene‐chromite barometer. The ilmenite‐chromite barometer and thermometer show much wider ranges of oxygen fugacity (1.0–7.0 log unit below QFM) and temperature (1130–480 °C), suggesting subsolidus equilibration of the oxides at low temperatures, probably due to deep burial of GRV 99027 on Mars. The low oxygen fugacity and LREE depletion of the parent magma of GRV 99027 suggest low contamination by martian crust. Characteristics of GRV 99027 demonstrate similarity of lherzolitic shergottites, suggesting a high possibility of launch pairing or a homogeneous upper mantle of Mars if they were ejected by individual impact events. However, GRV 99027 probably experienced severe post‐shock thermal metamorphism in comparison with other lherzolitic shergottites, based on the re‐crystallization of maskelynite, the homogeneity of minerals, and the low subsolidus equilibrium temperatures between chromite and ilmenite.