Numerical modeling and neural networks to identify model parameters from piezocone tests: II. Multi‐parameter identification from piezocone data

This paper completes the study presented in the accompanying paper, and demonstrates a numerical algorithm for parameter prediction from the piezocone test (CPTU) data. This part deals with a development of neural network (NN) models which are able to map multi‐variable input data onto typical geotechnical characteristics and constitutive parameters of the modified Cam clay model, which has been applied in this study. The identification procedure is designed for the coupled hydro‐mechanical boundary value problem in normally‐and lightly overconsolidated clayey soils including partially drained conditions that may appear during cone penetration. The NN models are trained with pseudo‐experimental measurements derived with the aid of the numerical model of the piezocone test, presented in the accompanying paper. Different input configurations containing CPTU measurements and some complementary data are studied with respect to the accuracy of predicted parameter values. Finally, the performance of the developed NN predictors is tested with field CPTU data which are derived from three well‐documented characterization sites, and the obtained predictions are compared with benchmark laboratory results. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A combined neural network/gradient‐based approach for the identification of constitutive model parameters using self‐boring pressuremeter tests

This paper presents a numerical procedure of material parameter identification for the coupled hydro‐mechanical boundary value problem (BVP) of the self‐boring pressuremeter test (SBPT) in clay. First, the neural network (NN) technique is applied to obtain an initial estimate of model parameters, taking into account the possible drainage conditions during the expansion test. This technique is used to avoid potential pitfalls related to the conventional gradient‐based optimization techniques, considered here as a corrector that improves predicted parameters. Parameter identification based on measurements obtained through the pressuremeter expansion test and two types of holding tests is illustrated on the Modified Cam clay model. NNs are trained using a set of test samples, which are generated by means of finite element simulations of SBPT. The measurements obtained through expansion and consolidation tests are normalized so that NN predictors operate independently of the testing depth. Examples of parameter determination are demonstrated on both numerical and field data. The efficiency of the combined parameter identification in terms of accuracy, effectiveness and computational effort is also discussed. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A hypoplastic model for mechanical response of unsaturated soils

A new constitutive model is developed for the mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils based on the theory of hypoplasticity and the effective stress principle. The governing constitutive relations are presented and their application is demonstrated using several experimental data from the literature. Attention is given to the stiffening effect of suction on the mechanical response of unsaturated soils and the phenomenon of wetting‐induced collapse. All model parameters have direct physical interpretation, procedures for their quantification from test data are highlighted. Quantitative predictions of the model are presented for wetting, drying and constant suction tests. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A double structure generalized plasticity model for expansive materials

The constitutive model presented in this work is built on a conceptual approach for unsaturated expansive soils in which the fundamental characteristic is the explicit consideration of two pore levels. The distinction between the macro‐ and microstructure provides the opportunity to take into account the dominant phenomena that affect the behaviour of each structural level and the main interactions between them. The microstructure is associated with the active clay minerals, while the macrostructure accounts for the larger‐scale structure of the material. The model has been formulated considering concepts of classical and generalized plasticity theories. The generalized stress–strain rate equations are derived within a framework of multidissipative materials, which provides a consistent and formal approach when there are several sources of energy dissipation. The model is formulated in the space of stresses, suction and temperature; and has been implemented in a finite element code. The approach has been applied to explaining and reproducing the behaviour of expansive soils in a variety of problems for which experimental data are available. Three application cases are presented in this paper. Of particular interest is the modelling of an accidental overheating, that took place in a large‐scale heating test. This test allows the capabilities of the model to be checked when a complex thermo‐hydro‐mechanical (THM) path is followed. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Numerical solutions for flow in porous media

A numerical approach is proposed to model the flow in porous media using homogenization theory. The proposed concept involves the analyses of micro‐true flow at pore‐level and macro‐seepage flow at macro‐level. Macro‐seepage and microscopic characteristic flow equations are first derived from the Navier–Stokes equation at low Reynolds number through a two‐scale homogenization method. This homogenization method adopts an asymptotic expansion of velocity and pressure through the micro‐structures of porous media. A slightly compressible condition is introduced to express the characteristic flow through only characteristic velocity. This characteristic flow is then numerically solved using a penalty FEM scheme. Reduced integration technique is introduced for the volumetric term to avoid mesh locking. Finally, the numerical model is examined using two sets of permeability test data on clay and one set of permeability test data on sand. The numerical predictions agree well with the experimental data if constraint water film is considered for clay and two‐dimensional cross‐connection effect is included for sand. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

堆石料残余变形特性与参数敏感性分析

基于搜集的国内多座土石坝堆石料的动力试验成果,研究了堆石料的振动残余变形特性。在整理试验数据过程中,尝试对沈珠江模型进行改进,改进模型充分考虑固结比对堆石料振动残余变形特性的影响,并能更好地拟合试验数据。通过对理想面板堆石坝进行地震动残余变形计算,对比分析了与沈珠江模型、孔宪京改进模型以及凌华改进模型的异同,阐述了本次改进模型的合理性。此外,在统计大量试验数据的基础上,给出了 - 与 - 关系曲线的平均线及上、下包络线,采用该统计曲线对理想面板堆石坝进行了地震残余变形敏感性分析。计算结果表明：参数c4、c5对坝体残余变形影响较大,参数c1、c2影响程度较小;选取均值曲线参数可应用于缺乏动力试验的中小型土石坝抗震设计。     

Support vector machines‐based modelling of seismic liquefaction potential

This paper investigates the potential of support vector machines (SVM)‐based classification approach to assess the liquefaction potential from actual standard penetration test (SPT) and cone penetration test (CPT) field data. SVMs are based on statistical learning theory and found to work well in comparison to neural networks in several other applications. Both CPT and SPT field data sets is used with SVMs for predicting the occurrence and non‐occurrence of liquefaction based on different input parameter combination. With SPT and CPT test data sets, highest accuracy of 96 and 97%, respectively, was achieved with SVMs. This suggests that SVMs can effectively be used to model the complex relationship between different soil parameter and the liquefaction potential. Several other combinations of input variable were used to assess the influence of different input parameters on liquefaction potential. Proposed approach suggest that neither normalized cone resistance value with CPT data nor the calculation of standardized SPT value is required with SPT data. Further, SVMs required few user‐defined parameters and provide better performance in comparison to neural network approach. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于Logistic回归模型的砂土液化概率评价

以国内外23次地震中200组场地液化实测数据为基础,通过Logistic回归分析,建立关联修正标准贯入击数N160cs与循环应力比CSR的液化概率模型。以50 %液化概率水平为液化与非液化的临界点,建立了指数形式的抗液化应力比CRR计算式,新建概率模型预测饱和砂土液化与非液化的成功率分别为85.71 %和76.14 %,具有较高的可靠性。与已有模型比较,使用了新的数据和修正系数,消除了一些不合理的偏差,总体判别结果偏于安全。为了将确定性分析方法与概率分析方法联系起来,建立了抗液化安全系数FS与液化概率PL的关系式。算例结果表明,新建概率模型简单、实用、可靠。     

THM analysis of a large‐scale heating test incorporating material fabric changes

Engineered barriers are basic elements in the design of repositories for the isolation of high‐level radioactive waste. This paper presents the thermo‐hydro‐mechanical (THM) analysis of a clay barrier subjected to heating and hydration. The study focuses on an ongoing large‐scale heating test, at almost full scale, which is being carried out at the CIEMAT laboratory under well‐controlled boundary conditions. The test is intensely instrumented and it has provided the opportunity to study in detail the evolution of the main THM variables over a long period of time. Comprehensive laboratory tests carried out in the context of the FEBEX and NF‐PRO projects have allowed the identification of the model parameters to describe the THM behaviour of the compacted expansive clay. A conventional THM approach that assumes the swelling clay as a single porosity medium has been initially adopted to analyse the evolution of the test. The model was able to predict correctly the global THM behaviour of the clay barrier in the short term (i.e. for times shorter than three years), but some model limitations were detected concerning the prediction of the long‐term hydration rate. An additional analysis of the test has been carried out using a double structure model to describe the actual behaviour of expansive clays. The double structure model explicitly considers the two dominant pore levels that actually exist in the FEBEX bentonite and it is able to account for the evolution of the material fabric. The simulation of the experiment using this enhanced model provides a more satisfactory reproduction of the long‐term experimental results. It also contributes to a better understanding of the observed test behaviour and it provides a physically based explanation for the very slow hydration of the barrier. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Oil formation volume factor modeling: Traditional vs. Stochastically optimized neural networks

Oil formation volume factor (FVF) is considered as relative change in oil volume between reservoir condition and standard surface condition. FVF, always greater than one, is dominated by reservoir temperature, amount of dissolved gas in oil, and specific gravity of oil and dissolved gas. In addition to limitations on reliable sampling, experimental determination of FVF is associated with high costs and time-consumption. Therefore, this study proposes a novel approach based on hybrid genetic algorithm-pattern search (GA-PS) optimized neural network (NN) for fast, accurate, and cheap determination of oil FVF from available measured pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) data. Contrasting to traditional neural network which is in danger of sticking in local minima, GA-PS optimized NN is in charge of escaping from local minima and converging to global minimum. A group of 342 data points were used for model construction and a group of 219 data points were employed for model assessment. Results indicated superiority of GA-PS optimized NN to traditional NN. Oil FVF values, determined by GA-PS optimized NN were in good agreement with reality.     

基于锚杆抗拔试验的动态折线模型分析

根据抗拔锚杆试验数据,建立了锚固体荷载传递特性随锚固深度变化的动态折线数值计算模型。首先,对锚杆抗拔试验进行了简单介绍,给出了试验的主要参数及数据;在此基础上,对试验中抗拔锚杆不同深度处锚固体荷载传递曲线进行了对比分析和讨论,提出了用以拟合计算的动态折线模型;然后结合锚杆轴力及位移计算能量法计算式对试验数据进行了拟合计算,计算结果与试验数据吻合,显示在拟合计算中动态折线模型使用合理;最后通过讨论明确了动态折线模型的适用条件,说明了其在试验分析及工程设计中的辅助作用。动态折线模型反映了不同深度地层中地应力变化对锚侧阻力的影响,虽然在计算中没有直接引入地应力,但其以试验为基础的参数设置和相对简单的迭代计算,为更精细的计算锚杆承载力提供了参考。     

Single‐and multi‐objective genetic algorithm optimization for identifying soil parameters

This paper discusses the quality of the procedure employed in identifying soil parameters by inverse analysis. This procedure includes a FEM‐simulation for which two constitutive models—a linear elastic perfectly plastic Mohr–Coulomb model and a strain‐hardening elasto‐plastic model—are successively considered. Two kinds of optimization algorithms have been used: a deterministic simplex method and a stochastic genetic method. The soil data come from the results of two pressuremeter tests, complemented by triaxial and resonant column testing. First, the inverse analysis has been performed separately on each pressuremeter test. The genetic method presents the advantage of providing a collection of satisfactory solutions, among which a geotechnical engineer has to choose the optimal one based on his scientific background and/or additional analyses based on further experimental test results. This advantage is enhanced when all the constitutive parameters sensitive to the considered problem have to be identified without restrictions in the search space. Second, the experimental values of the two pressuremeter tests have been processed simultaneously, so that the inverse analysis becomes a multi‐objective optimization problem. The genetic method allows the user to choose the most suitable parameter set according to the Pareto frontier and to guarantee the coherence between the tests. The sets of optimized parameters obtained from inverse analyses are then used to calculate the response of a spread footing, which is part of a predictive benchmark. The numerical results with respect to both the constitutive models and the inverse analysis procedure are discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A constitutive model for crushed salt

A constitutive model for crushed salt is presented in this paper. A creep constitutive model is developed first and compared with test results. The constitutive model presented here concentrates on creep deformation because saline media behave basically in a ductile and time‐dependent way. An idealized geometry is used as a common framework to obtain stress–strain macroscopic laws based on two deformation mechanisms: fluid‐assisted diffusional transfer creep and dislocation creep. The model is able to predict strain rates that compare well with results from laboratory tests under isotropic and oedometric conditions. Macroscopic laws are written using a non‐linear viscous approach, which incorporates also a viscoplastic component, based on critical state theory. The viscoplastic term is intended for non‐creep deformation mechanisms such as grain reorganization and crushing. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Comparison of three models of dispersion in dual porosity media

The work presented in this paper shows that the probabilistic approach as well as the fractional Brownian motion model are reliable to simulate the dispersion of contaminant in the dual porosity media. Three models were tested on experimental data obtained by tracer tests in chalk characterized by a primary and a secondary porosity: a numerical model (MT3DMS), a probabilistic model based on the Bayesian approach and a fractional Brownian model. By using Einstein’s rule, it is demonstrated that the dispersion coefficient is time dependent and that the dispersion is ballistic which is a particular case of superdiffusion. A test of sensitivity was carried out and shows that the numerical model is slightly suitable to simulate the concentration in time and space for a given discharge starting from the physical parameters obtained by calibration for an other discharge because of the great sensitivity of its parameters according to the hydrodynamic conditions. On the other hand, the variability of the parameters of the two other models does not generate important errors on the values of simulated concentrations when other hydrodynamic conditions are considered.     

土石混合体填筑路堤中的非线性蠕变模型探析

针对土石混合体填筑路堤工后沉降的非线性蠕变特性,提出了一种能考虑材料非线性黏弹性变形的蠕变模型。基于目前对土石混合体蠕变机理研究,将路堤工后的蠕变沉降部分考虑为非线性的衰减蠕变过程,建立了修正的Kelvin模型、广义修正模型,且得到了模型参数的识别方法;通过对修正模型分析表明,非线性常数取值对蠕变曲线变化有较大影响,修正模型的蠕变长期应变值比Kelvin模型要小;结合相关文献中对土石体填料的蠕变试验研究资料,用修正Kelvin模型对试验结果进行拟合,并对参数进行了反演,反演效果良好。修正模型的建立可为编制非线性黏弹性数值计算软件提供理论基础。     

Fuzzy parameters analysis of time‐dependent fracture of concrete dam models

In order to apply the mechanical properties (measured on material specimens or laboratory‐sized models) to large structures (such as concrete dams), a non‐linear theory able to predict the size‐scale effect has to be used. One of these theories was first proposed by Hillerborg and co‐workers (fictitious crack model) and is based on the earlier works by Barenblatt and Dugdale for metals (cohesive crack model). It is based on the existence of a fracture process zone (FPZ), where the material undergoes strain softening. The behaviour of the material outside the FPZ is linear elastic. A large number of short‐time laboratory tests were executed, by varying the load, under crack mouth opening displacement control. Since concrete exhibits a time‐dependent behaviour, an interaction between creep and micro‐crack growth occurs in the FPZ. Therefore, different testing conditions can be applied: rupture can be achieved by keeping the load constant before peak value (pre‐peak tests), or after peak value and after an unloading and reloading procedure (post‐peak tests). The crack propagation rate is shown to be small enough to neglect inertial forces and large enough to keep the time‐dependent behaviour of the process zone as dominant compared to the behaviour of the undamaged and viscoelastic zone. Due to the variability in material microstructure from one specimen to another, experimental data show large ranges of scatter. Well established methods in probability theory require sufficient experimental data in order to assume a probability density distribution. The objective of this study is to investigate the ranges of variation of the time response under constant load in simple structural elements associated with pre‐selected variation (fuzziness) in the main material parameters. For situations where the values of the material parameters are of a non‐stochastic nature, the fuzzy set approach to modelling variability has been proposed as a better and more natural approach. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A hydrogeophysical model of the relationship between geoelectric and hydraulic parameters of anisotropic aquifers

An electrical resistivity method has been used to determine aquifer parameters in the Ganga-Yamuna interfluve in northern India. An existing relationship between the geoelectrical and hydraulic parameters has been modified for the case of an anisotropic aquifer. The hydrogeological framework in the upper part of the Ganga-Yamuna interfluve is evaluated by using existing relationships between hydraulic parameters and geoelectrical parameters for alluvial aquifers. On the basis of aquifer geometry, the area has been divided into two hydraulic units: the western Yamuna flood plain and the Ganga flood plain towards the east. The resistivity data collected in parts of the study area are first interpreted in terms of true resistivity and thicknesses of subsurface layers. The electrical parameters (resistivity and thicknesses) are subsequently correlated with the available pumping test data. Distinct correlations between transmissivity and modified transverse resistance are obtained for the two hydraulic units. A four-parameter model consisting of hydraulic conductivity, modified longitudinal resistivity, modified transverse resistance and hydraulic anisotropy is presented for the anisotropic aquifer underlain by conductive fine grained sediments. The model has been validated at a number of locations, where aquifer parameters are known from pumping test data.