Accommodating ecotourism in multiple use planning of coastal and marine protected areas

Coastal and marine areas the world over provide food, transportation, recreation, and energy resources to increasing numbers of people each year. As demands for these resources rise, the potential for user conflicts is radically heightened. This situation can be avoided or counteracted by instigating proactive multiple use planning. Multiple use zoning plans can only exist in a concrete management framework: marine and coastal protected areas provide just such a foundation. Nature-based or ecotourism can be encouraged in coastal protected areas aimed at achieving sustainability. Well-planned tourism provides economic and political incentives for management and for conservation, and may bring additional benefits to local communities and regional economies. Examples where nature-based tourism has been or is becoming successfully integrated into multiple use planning can be found in Quintana Roo, Mexico; the Lesser Antilles; and Australia, among other areas.     

Murky waters: Media reporting of marine protected areas in South Australia

Given the public's limited knowledge of marine environments, informing the public about marine protection presents a unique challenge. Studies have shown a well-informed public is more likely to support environmental issues and that newspapers, in particular, are considered a credible media source. This research investigates media representations of current South Australian efforts to establish a marine protected area (MPA). Articles from five newspapers between 1999 and 2006 were examined for content in the following areas: local marine ecology, the policy process of MPA establishment and stakeholder views. The research found that newspapers concentrated their reporting on opposing stakeholders, opinions and were largely ineffective in conveying the significance of the local marine ecology, the economic benefits of the MPA, and the delayed establishment process. These information gaps have left the public poorly informed, and therefore, there is unlikely to be significant pressure to overcome the continued delays in the establishment process.     

Integrating science and management on coastal marine protected areas in the Southern Gulf of Mexico

The coastal zone of the State of Campeche have some of the Gulf of Mexico’s richest ecosystems characterized by extensive seagrasses, mangrove forests, low-land tidal wetlands, a broad deltaic environment, including the Usumacinta/Laguna de Terminos estuarine ecosystem, and extensive low salinities and brackish wetlands in the Petenes region. Commercial and artisanal fishing, maritime transport, agriculture and cattle grazing in low-land areas, urban expansion, building of highways, and tourism, are important economics activities that are increasing in the State of Campeche. However, the growth needs to occur in a sustainable manner with adequate protection of the coastal ecosystems. The theoretical approach and conceptual basis of the integrated coastal management plan are based on 20 years of scientific research in the region; and from 1990 to the present, a number of projects have been completed which serve as case studies of coastal management coupling science, technology, public participation, and policymaking in the southern Gulf of Mexico. After developing seven “study case” integrating science into policymaking, a management approach was developed considering four main actions: promotion of institutional arrangements, so that the multi-sectorial planning approach be considered in coastal resources development; strengthening of public awareness related to coastal resources management policies and capabilities; gathering, analysis and dissemination of information related to coastal resources development; and provision of technical solutions to coastal resources uses in conflict. Finally this is a case study where science played a significant role in the politics of the policy process, both in protecting key estuarine ecosystem and the planning process defining the ICZM plans.     

Evaluating marine protected areas for managing marine resource conflict in Hawaii

Conflict surrounding commercial fisheries is a common phenomenon when diverse stakeholders are involved. Harvesting reef fish for the global ornamental fish trade has provoked conflict since the late 1970s in the State of Hawaii. Two decades later the state of Hawaii established a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) on the west coast of the island of Hawaii (“West Hawaii”) to protect and enhance the fish resources and alleviate conflict between stakeholders, principally between commercial dive tour operators and aquarium fishers. The perceptions held by these stakeholders on West Hawaii and Maui were evaluated to understand how MPAs influenced conflict dimensions, as the former location had a well-established MPA network designed to alleviate conflict, while the latter did not. This was accomplished by analyzing the following questions: (1) perceptions about the effectiveness of MPAs to alleviate conflict and enhance reef fish; (2) perceived group encounters and threats to coral reefs; (3) willingness to encourage fishing; and (4) value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade. The results indicate the MPAs in West Hawaii were moderately effective for alleviating conflict, encounters between stakeholders occurred on both islands, dive operators strongly opposed commercial fishing and perceived aquarium fishing as a serious threat to the coral reef ecosystem, and polarized value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade confirms pervasive social values conflict. The conflict between these groups was also asymmetrical. MPAs are inadequate for resolving long term conflict between groups who hold highly dissimilar value orientations toward the use of marine resources. Future marine spatial planning and MPA setting processes should include stakeholder value and conflict assessments to avoid and manage tensions between competing user groups.     

Australian biodiversity and marine protected areas

Australian flora and fauna are both highly endemic and species-rich, yet they have been under enormous human pressure as ecosystems have been simplified and fragmented. In order to promote biodiversity Australia has ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and has released a Draft National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity. The purpose of this article is to explore how Australian biological diversity will be supported in a national system of marine protected areas. Attention is given firstly to the international and Australian responses to biological diversity, particularly with respect to the use of in situ conservation. This is followed by an overview of the Australian marine protected area system. An assessment is made on how marine protected areas can further conserve and enhance the unique biodiversity of Australia.     

Understanding the cost of establishing marine protected areas

While the recurrent cost of managing marine protected areas (MPAs) has been documented and estimated, there has been virtually no attempt to quantify the cost of establishing MPAs in the first place. This lack of attention is likely the result of the complexity of the process, involving often uncoordinated efforts of a multitude of governmental and non-governmental entities over a protracted period of time with no clear start and end-point. Using information gathered from a representative subset of MPAs worldwide, this paper presents the first attempt to identify and describe the various components, and explore potential predictors of the total funds spent in the course of establishment. The thirteen MPAs studied vary in size (from <1 to >360,000 km²), location (including near- and offshore in both developed and developing countries), objectives and degree of protection. Variation in MPA start-up costs is shown to be most significantly related to both MPA size and the duration of the establishment phase. Development of a method to estimate the potential cost of establishing proposed MPAs should play a crucial role in the conservation planning process.     

A conceptual framework for the integral management of marine protected areas

A general conceptual framework for the management of marine protected areas (MPAs) was developed. The driver-pressure-state-impacts-response (DPSIR) framework was used to determine the elements affecting MPAs. The developed evaluation framework helped to select an appropriate suite of indicators to support an ecosystem approach, an assessment of the MPAs functioning and policy decisions. Gaps derived from the management and policy responses in the MPAs were also outlined. It was concluded that the DPSIR framework can help to simplify the complexity of MPA management. This document is a tool for policy makers, scientists and general public on the relevance of indicators to monitor changes and MPAs management.     

A Policy-enabling framework for the ex-ante evaluation of marine protected areas

A marine protected area (MPA) potentially generates a wide range of consumptive use, non-consumptive use and non-use values that include: critical habitat protection, conservation of marine biodiversity, recovery of threatened and endangered marine species, increased recreational benefits and increased biomass of harvested marine species. To help assess whether such values exceed the potential costs of MPAs, this paper provides a policy-enabling framework that reviews the existing theoretical and practical instruments and approaches that can be used in the ex-ante evaluation of MPAs. This framework is in three parts. First, a range of alternative monetary and non-monetary techniques to estimate three key economic benefits of MPAs: consumptive, non-consumptive use and non-use values are presented. Second, three decision protocols that can be applied to determine the desirability of establishing MPAs are described. Third, caveats of these approaches and the necessity to accommodate social needs of the communities are provided. The framework shows that biological and ecological considerations together with economic viability and socio-economic factors can and should be taken into account when deciding about when and where to establish MPAs and of what size.     

Marine protected areas: a tool for integrated coastal management in Belize

Management of the Belize Barrier Reef was originally envisioned through the creation of marine protected areas. However, the influence of land-based activities was not accounted for in Marine Protected Area (MPA) programs. Therefore focus was shifted to an integrated approach via Integrated Coastal Management (ICM). The Belize ICM process has evolved into a system of coordination through the fostering of multi-sectoral linkages for integrated management of coastal resources. Marine protected areas were included in the ICM program as tools for achieving biodiversity protection and management of sensitive habitats. The ICM process has resulted in greater coordination and consultation in decision making for coastal resource issues, the MPA program however has not evolved with the trend of greater community involvement in MPA management. The greatest challenges to MPA and ICM programs in the next 10 years are: improved linkages between the two, fostering of community participation in management, broadening of the scope of ICM to watersheds and ocean governance, and sustainable financing for both programs.     

Volunteer health and emotional wellbeing in marine protected areas

Citizen science monitoring programs in the marine environment frequently focus on volunteer collected data precision for conservation and resource use of marine biota. Few studies have examined the social science aspects of volunteer engagement in marine monitoring programs in a quantifiable manner. This research focuses on emotional attitudes of Sea Search volunteers who monitor Marine National Parks and Marine Sanctuaries in Victoria, Australia. Volunteers responded that their participation in Sea Search activities made them feel good emotionally and mentally, with active learning, such as remembering names of marine biota, stimulating brain activity and memory. Volunteer monitoring efforts generated personal satisfaction through their contributions, feelings of enjoyment, and socialising with others. Sea Search volunteers gain a sense of want to protect and conserve the marine environment through positive behaviour change. By understanding and having a sense of meaning towards the marine environment, the volunteers felt a sense of pride in themselves. The concepts of volunteer connection to the natural environment and positive mental and emotional health are important for any citizen science monitoring program and should be used in the program’s aims and strategies as an effective means to attract volunteers. A functional framework which clearly communicates and assesses not only the scientific expectations from a citizen science program, but also the health and wellbeing connections to nature, need to be addressed in Government marine and coastal strategies.     

Linking marine protected areas to integrated coastal and ocean management: A review of theory and practice

If managed in isolation, coastal and marine protected areas (MPAs) are vulnerable to natural resource development and exploitation occurring outside these areas—in particular, overfishing, alteration and destruction of habitats, and water pollution. Thus, protection of coastal and marine areas—of species, habitats, landscapes, and seascapes—should be integrated into spatial development strategies for larger areas, under the umbrella of integrated coastal and ocean management (ICM). This is typically easier said than done, since the actors involved in MPA networks and in ICM programs are often different, reflecting different cultures, networks of relationships, ministries, and goals and motivations.This article reviews the ecological, social and economic linkages between MPAs and the governance of broader ocean and coastal areas; sets forth nine guiding principles for managing MPAs within an ICM context; reviews work conducted under the Convention on Biological Diversity to operationalize the linkages between ICM and MPAs; and develops strategic guidance for addressing these linkages. The article ends with a call to bring together the diverse communities involved in marine protected areas, coastal and ocean management, and watershed management to collaborate in national-level ocean and coastal planning, including in the designation of networks of marine protected areas.     

Fishermen responses on marine protected areas in the Baltic cod fishery

Much of the research that concerns the impacts of management measures in the eastern Baltic cod fishery has focused on fish stock rather than understanding fishermen's attitudes towards regulations. Hence, there is little information available on fishermen's responses although they are the ones whom the regulations affect most profoundly. This study analyses the views of fishermen towards management measures with an emphasis on fishing closures (marine protected areas, MPAs). Swedish log-book data from 1996 to 2005 were used to describe MPA induced fishing effort displacements. Fishermen argued that MPAs have been inefficient in conservation of cod stock. The enlargement of Bornholm MPA in 2005 caused substantial effort displacement towards areas dominated by smaller sized fish. This contributed to the increased discarding of juvenile cod. Enlarged MPAs also intensified competition between different fleet segments and reallocated fishing areas. To reduce fishing mortality, fishermen suggested days-at-sea (effort) regulation and an effective landings control system for all fleets that exploit cod stocks in the Baltic Sea Main Basin. These measures would better motivate fishermen for mutual rule compliance, which is a prerequisite for a sustainable cod fishery.     

Developing a framework for displaced fishing effort programs in marine protected areas

As marine protected areas (MPAs) continue to be established, measures to address displaced effort are likely to become increasingly relevant. Recent experiences of displaced fishing effort programs for MPAs and recreational fishing reserves in Australia, together with two examples from the United States, are described. A practical framework for addressing displaced fishing effort is developed, which explores the likely displaced-effort scenarios and options when planning spatial commercial fishing closures for an MPA.     

The potential for dive tourism led entrepreneurial marine protected areas in Curacao

Despite the successful establishment of marine protected areas in the Netherlands Antilles, such as Saba and Bonaire, government-led protection of the reefs surrounding Curacao has repeatedly failed. In the absence of effective state regulation, dive operations have taken de facto control over dive sites, establishing conservation through a range of private initiatives akin to what have been referred to as entrepreneurial marine protected areas (EMPAs). The paper analyses the potential of these EMPAs to regulate access and control to dive sites and good diver practices. Using data from interviews with key actors in the dive industry and a survey of tourist divers the paper shows that achieving an island wide system of EMPAs is dependent on issues related to ownership over the reef, geographical location, and market competition. The paper concludes that the viability of such a system is not only dependent on the dynamics of the local and international dive market, in which all actors pursue their own interests, but also on the establishment of meta-governance arrangements that can provide incentive-based oversight to the entrepreneurial conservation practices of dive operations.     

浅议福建省海洋保护区建设与管理

福建省海洋保护区建设与管理经过20多年来的发展,取得了一定成效,但仍然存在一些问题,文章分析了该保护区的建设与管理现状,提出了福建海洋保护区在面积结构、总体布局规划、经费投入、管理体制、法律法规和科研工作存在的主要问题,并针对上述问题提出了建议。     

Financing marine protected areas in Jamaica: An exploratory study

The establishment of marine protected areas (MPA) has been a common government response to increasing fishing, tourism and other human activities that lead to decline in coral and marine resources. MPAs often suffer inadequacy of funds and simply become “paper parks”. This study makes a case for the feasibility of a self-financing mechanism for MPAs by estimating potential surplus benefit that recreational users may gain from MPAs in Jamaica. These same recreational users in turn, might be willing to pay a small portion of that gain toward the management costs. With the help of a travel cost model and the visitors’ willingness to pay (WTP) estimates, we show that the management costs of the park amount to a negligible amount; less than 0.1% of the annual total WTP. Furthermore, using these WTP estimates and the findings from other stakeholders’ surveys (hotels, tour operators, etc.), the paper provides insights on user-supported funding policies, such as taxes and fees, which might sustain the operations of MPAs in Jamaica and the broader Caribbean region.     

Ecosystemic zonification as a management tool for marine protected areas in the coastal zone: Applications for the Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano National Park,Mexico

Protected marine areas management depends mainly on the zonification schemes applied. The aim of the present work is to propose a zonification scheme for protected marine areas in the coastal zone, based on the ecosystem features. This ecosystemic zonification is based on structural and functional elements of marine ecosystems, and allows the incorporation of the main environmental characteristics into the management plan of these areas, whether information about biotic factors is available or not. Based on this, a zonification of the Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano National Park is proposed, which considers the identification of various subsystems, seascapes and environmental units within nested scales, to be included in the national park management plan.     

The management performance of marine protected areas in the North-east Atlantic Ocean

In the North-east Atlantic Ocean there are 550 inshore and offshore MPAs established to accomplish a high diversity of objectives, which can be classified into 24 different types of MPA designations. Only 153 of these MPAs have a management plan (MgP) --the basic tool required for an effective management. Amongst these, only 66 are actually managed, i.e. they have the staff and resources required to operate the plan. A common characteristic of these MPAs is the lack of standardized indicators of their performance. In order to address this issue, an alternative approach was developed based on the assessment of management performance using the expert knowledge and perceptions of managers operating MPAs, a universal source of information that could allow overcoming the usual gaps due to the restrictions in coverage of scientific monitoring and assessments. MgPs showed differences among countries but were homogeneous within each country, reflecting the usual top-down approach in the establishment of MPAs. Compliance with the qualitative objectives present in MgPs was higher than compliance with quantitative ones (87% versus 50%), and the MPAs that most successfully achieved their objectives were those with regular monitoring. This analysis also shows that beyond these objectives, the establishment of an MPA and the activities developed as a consequence of its creation have a positive socio-economic impact on the local human community.