Environmental issues with Australian ports

Ports and shipping operations are under increased environmental scrutiny in Australia, particularly as so many of Australia's ports and shipping routes are located in or near major environmentally sensitive areas. The environmental risks involved have been highlighted by the publicity given to shipping accidents. Environmental regulations over aspects of port operations, including ballast water management, dredge spoil and waste reception, are also becoming stricter. While port authorities have adopted stringent environmental guidelines, they remain concerned that the full impact of proposed new environmental regulations on maritime industry may not be fully understood. This paper discusses some of the issues involved with achieving a balance between environmental protection and the need to recognise the importance of seaborne trade to Australia and to maintain Australia's competitiveness in international trade.     

The role of biological research in supporting policy needs

Within the UK, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) is one of several government departments which undertakes research in support of its policy aims. For example, DEFRA has responsibility for licensing the deposit of materials in the sea in order to protect the environment, public health and prevent interference with other uses of the sea. This includes assessment of pollutant responses in marine organisms. The objectives include assessment of the sub-lethal effect that pollutants have at the cellular, organ and individual level, for example in normal genetic, behavioural and reproductive activity and extrapolation of the potential impact of pollutants to populations. This work helps DEFRA to establish whether individually or in combination, pollutants have an adverse effect on the environment. This paper gives some examples of the research undertaken and demonstrates how biological research can provide cost effective solutions to analytical problems and an opportunity to predict the way in which proposed disposal operations may have an impact on the marine environment. The way such research may influence policy is also discussed.     

The environmental management of shipping

The environmental management of shipping requires systematic consideration of the geography of shipping routes, ship types and cargoes, and environments which can form the basis of a classificatory approach to Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Beyond this, effective environmental management depends in the first instance upon sound information management including monitoring of the environment, surveillance of shipping and information technology, followed by information assessment including, in particular, risk and environmental impact. The general management dimension includes co-ordination of technical management and organisational aspects related to shipping. It is suggested that effective environmental management of shipping may depend upon a regionalisation of the marine environment for EIA purposes akin to that found in the loadline rules, together with rationalisation of the increasing number of special areas in existence or proposed for this purpose. EIA will have to become an integral part of the overall management system in the shipping industry.     

A fuzzy set theory approach to flagging out: towards a new Chinese shipping policy

The paper seeks to model the benefits and costs involved in the decision to flag out, and to provide arguments for alternative policies, aiming to counteract this age-long phenomenon. Based on the analysis of the evolution of worldwide and Chinese flagging out, the emphasis in the paper is on the comprehensive effect assessment of flagging out and the required adjustment of Chinese shipping policy. To identify the determinants of such an adjustment, the paper introduces fuzzy set theory and related models, aimed to assess the economic effects of flagging out through the use of context-dependent economic and societal indicators (factors). The degree to which such indicators contribute to the choice of flag decision is assessed through a questionnaire survey. In parallel, and in the context of the determinant analysis of fuzzy models, the paper probes into the ‘policy competition’ and ‘government intervention’ policies to counteract flagging out. In the same context, a comparative analysis of shipping policies between China and traditional maritime countries is undertaken, in order to assess the current ‘openness’ of the Chinese shipping policy and explore possible policy alternatives. The paper concludes that the preferred policy alternative for China would be the establishment of second international ship register.     

Analysis of ship life cycles—The impact of economic cycles and ship inspections

Due to the shipping industry's international legal framework, there are loopholes in the system, which can increase the risk of incidents with high economic costs due to the substandard operation of vessels. This article uses duration analysis and through the creation of ship life cycles provides insight into the effectiveness of inspections on prolonging ship lives. The analysis accounts for fluctuations in the relevant economic environment and the (possibly time-varying) ship particulars. It is based on a unique dataset containing information on the timing of accidents, inspections and ship particular changes of more than 50,000 vessels over a 29-year time period (1978–2007). The results reveal that the shipping industry is a relatively safe industry but there is a possible over-inspection of vessels. The effect of inspections varies across ship types and the prevention of incidents with high economic costs can be improved by a coordinated approach of all types of inspections that are performed which allows the decrease of unnecessary inspections. Further, more emphasis should be placed on the rectification and follow-up of deficiencies and the implementation of the ISM code. Another added benefit for the industry would be to improve transparency related to class withdrawals and class transfers for all classification societies. Another interesting finding is that for the majority of ship types, an increase in earnings decreases the incident rate. This is in contrast to the industry perception of the impact of earnings.     

A well-being framework for impact evaluation: The case of the UK offshore wind industry

Growing levels of energy consumption and concern over the environmental consequences of energy production are leading to an increased investment in renewable energy generation. Despite an important relationship between energy production, consumption and well-being, little attempt has been made to provide a holistic assessment of how renewable energy sectors can contribute to different aspects of human well-being. This paper develops an impact evaluation framework that can be used to capture societal-level impacts of change on primarily objective well-being and applies it to the case of the UK offshore wind industry. As such, the framework goes beyond the traditional view of economic, social and environmental impact assessment and evaluation capturing wider aspects of societal costs and benefits as well as sustainable development. The framework proves a useful tool for organising the available evidence and suggests a broadly positive impact of the UK offshore wind industry. While further testing and refinement of the framework is needed, it could be easily transferred for well-being assessment of other industries and interventions.     

我国海洋滩涂主要污染物的研究概况

随着经济的发展和生活水平的提高,海洋滩涂因其资源丰富且易开发,受到了越来越多的关注。然而,由于过度开发、环境污染及异常海况变动造成海洋滩涂生态正在恶化并日趋加剧。在介绍海洋滩涂主要污染物类型的基础上,本文对海洋滩涂沉积物中污染物的组成、来源、空间分布及污染水平进行概述,列举滩涂污染生态风险评估主要方法,剖析滩涂污染引发的主要问题,总结近年来滩涂治理的思路和措施,旨在为新型沿海滩涂管理及资源开发提供一定的理论基础。     

The implications of Arctic sea ice decline on shipping

Although a ‘blue’ Arctic Ocean is predicted in the summertime to occur from the middle of this century, current rates of warming indicate an earlier realization. Also, routes along the coast of Siberia will be navigable much earlier. However, before the Arctic routes can reliably be used on a large scale for transit by shipping along its passages, more investments are required on infrastructure and the provision of marine services to ensure the safe and secure transit of shipping with minimal environmental impact.     

Examination of policies and MEAs commitment by SIDS for sustainable management of the Caribbean Sea

The Caribbean Sea hosts twenty-seven small island developing states (SIDS), some of which utilise their marine resources found in the Caribbean Sea for economic gains. Many of the economic activities such as tourism, shipping and industrial development are currently incompatible with a healthy and sustainable marine environment. Sewage, agricultural effluents and hydrocarbon pollution resulting from these economic activities have led to degradation of this large marine ecosystem. In an effort to address these issues; policies, programmes and multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) were initiated in order to regionalise the response efforts. These include efforts such the Cartagena Convention, the integrated watershed and coastal area management (IWCAM) initiative and pollution assessment among others. This paper reviews the regional responses by the SIDS and other agencies in dealing with pollution from land and marine-based activities and biodiversity loss via these initiatives.     

The liberalization of shipping in Taiwan

Maritime transport has become well developed in Taiwan, which is located in the western Pacific Rim. Following the model of traditional maritime nations, Taiwan's government enacted some shipping-friendly measures to help the industry in its early expansion stage. Nevertheless, government authorities have taken actions to liberalize the operations of the maritime-transport sector over the past 10 years. This paper focuses on how the liberalization measures were proposed and implemented including the process and reasons behind the formulation of governmental policies, the interaction between domestic shipping operators and the government. In addition, this paper presents a comprehensive review of the liberalization policy's impact on domestic maritime transport operators.     

Application of wave spectral information in marine forecasting

Ocean wave spectra were for many years regarded as scientific information of little use for practical purposes. In the last decade, this has changed. Within many marine sectors there are now stronger demands for more accurate spectral information which directly have an impact on safety and regularity of operations and on the sustainability of constructions. This paper shows examples of applications, mostly from routine forecasting service experience in the North Sea and the North East Atlantic.     

青岛市经济增长引发环境污染的冲击响应模式分析

经济的不断发展造成了极大的环境污染,需要人们用科学的手段对经济发展和造成的环境污染之间的关系进行客观判断。采用主成分分析法、格兰杰因果检验以及基于VAR的脉冲响应函数对青岛市的经济发展与环境污染二者间关系进行分析,结果发现由于环境承载力的存在,经济增长造成环境污染在很大程度上受到时滞的影响,经济增长引发环境问题是渐进的、长期的,所以在发展经济时不能只顾眼前利益而忽视对环境的长期影响,要注重可持续发展。     

Charting the territory: Exploring stakeholder reactions to the prospect of seafloor exploration and mining in Australia

Geological surveys of Australia’s marine territory have revealed significant potential for development of a marine resource industry. As onshore mineral deposits become harder to find, less accessible to their market and more challenging to extract, seafloor exploration and mining becomes an economically viable option. However, evidence from industry and environmental literature suggests that social acceptance will be important in determining the future of this industry in Australia. This paper reports on findings from research investigating the social viability of seafloor mining in Australia. A combination of interviews and focus groups were used to explore industry and community reactions to the possible development of seafloor mining in Australia. Although stakeholders’ reactions were variable, the majority of the participants were reluctant to see development of seafloor mining in Australia, primarily because of concerns about the industry’s potential environmental impact. All stakeholders sought further information about the benefits and costs associated with the industry suggesting that they did not yet have a fixed attitude towards the industry. Stakeholders favoured a precautionary approach towards the industry, supported by rigorous scientific analysis of the potential environmental impacts, transparent and socially responsive management processes and meaningful engagement with stakeholders.     

Harmful routines? Uncertainty in science and conflicting views on routine petroleum operations in Norway

Offshore petroleum activities are the focus of highly politicised debates globally. Typically, public debate is sparked by catastrophic events, such as the 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, and decision-making processes fuelled by the assessment of ‘worst-case scenarios’. However, everyday ‘routine’ petroleum operations also impact the marine ecosystems and adjoining socio-economic sectors, but the extent and severity of the impacts are uncertain. This paper takes as its point of departure routine operations and their surrounding uncertainties. Particularly, it focuses on the debates of whether to extend routine petroleum operations in vulnerable and valuable parts of Norway, such as the Lofoten area and the Sula Ridge. These conflicts draw on important and for some, epistemological uncertainties that surround the impacts of routine operations. The paper argues that it is necessary to first highlight these uncertainties, rather than marginalise them, and second, recognise that uncertainties are not simply a scientific challenge, but can be a powerful political tool. This paper unpacks and explores uncertainties associated with three phases of routine operations, that are used to steer political actions: (i) the impacts of seismic surveys on fish and marine mammals; (ii) the impacts of drilling mud and drill cuttings on benthic communities such as deep-sea coral reefs; and (iii) the impacts of produced water on the marine environment. The paper discusses the importance of transparency in addressing these uncertainties, and emphasises the need to implement the precautionary principle in a more participatory way. It thus proposes participatory exercises in order to allow the recognition of the epistemological nature of uncertainties.     

Slow steaming and a new dawn for wind propulsion: A multi-level analysis of two low carbon shipping transitions

The key enabler of international trade, shipping is heavily reliant on fossil fuels and responsible for approximately 2% of global carbon emissions. For the sector to reduce its emissions in line with climate change objectives, a wholesale transition is required from the current carbon intensive shipping system to one with a lower climatic impact. Drawing on the multi-level perspective from the socio-technical transitions literature, this paper focuses on two technological developments which could reduce the emissions from shipping – slow steaming and wind propulsion. Outlining the landscape changes which may hinder or support the incorporation of each of these innovations into the broader shipping regime the paper shows how slow steaming has been accommodated within this regime, in response to high oil prices and the economic downturn. In the longer term it concludes that additional policy measures may be required to ensure slow steaming persists should landscape pressures reduce. Oil prices, and the environmental agenda, are driving the development of wind propulsion, but more needs to be done to support those companies which seek to demonstrate and commercialise modern incarnations of the original pioneers of the seas.     

Wind technologies: Opportunities and barriers to a low carbon shipping industry

The abatement potential of wind technologies on ships is estimated to be around 10–60% by various sources. To date there has been minimal uptake of this promising technology, despite a number of commercially available solutions that have been developed to harness this free and abundant energy source. Several barriers have been referred to in the literature that inhibit uptake of energy efficiency measures in shipping. This paper provides a systematic analysis of the viability of wind technology on ships and the barriers to their implementation, both from the perspective of the technology providers and technology users (ship owner–operators), using the survey and the deliberative workshop method. The data generated from these methods is analysed using the qualitative content analysis method. The results show that whilst there is renewed interest in wind power, there are several common economic barriers that are hindering the mass uptake of wind technologies. Our analysis shows that third party capital is a plausible solution to overcoming the cost of capital, split incentives and information barriers that have contributed to inhibiting the uptake of wind technology in the shipping industry.     

胶州湾近岸海域污染物削减的效益分析

首先计算了2008年化学需氧量（COD）和氨氮（NH3-N）对胶州湾各类海洋功能类别造成的经济损失,其次利用COD和氨氮总量削减成本模型计算不同削减情况下的投入成本,最后将不同削减量下获得的经济效益与相应的投入成本进行对比,得出污染物削减后胶州湾的效益为：削减3%为3.351亿元,削减5%为5.562亿元,削减8%为10.745亿元,削减10%为12.764亿元。通过对胶州湾削减污染物的经济损益情况计算,以期为胶州湾环境污染治理预算和政府决策提供支持。     

Bridging islands and calming seas: A material flow management approach to sustainable sea transportation for Fiji's lower southern Lau islands

The relatively remote and geographically isolated lower southern Lau islands of Fiji rely on maritime transportation for their economic success and social wellbeing. This paper explores the feasibility of implementing a Material Flow Management (MFM) framework to sustainable shipping and the possibilities for addressing the socio-economic development needs of the relevant island communities. The research question is: how can a regional MFM framework for hybrid powered maritime vessels be implemented effectively to promote ecological quality improvements and local added value for Fiji's lower southern Lau islands? The mixed methods research uses a quasi-experimental design, with most data collected on site during a March 2015 field study of the lower southern Lau route. The findings are applied to a tailor-made MFM framework that demonstrate the viability and effectiveness in achieving seven key aims: (1) activate regional potential; (2) increase system efficiency; (3) decrease operating costs; (4) create stakeholder network; (5) create and maintain jobs; (6) support innovative small and medium enterprises (SMEs); and (7) create sustainable economy/society. The results validate the MFM framework as a potential model of sustainable sea transport for this particular route that can be expanded upon for other domestic and regional shipping routes. The author concludes that further research and the development of pertinent socio-economic indicators based on these findings will support a more robust MFM model as it applies to sustainable sea transport.     

Remote sensing of coastal interactions in the Mediterranean region

The coastal regions of the Mediterranean are the site of countless economic and recreational activities, but are threatened by dramatic dangers of misuse and pollution. Adequate tools are needed to study the environmental pressure imposed on these regions by the conflicting needs of protecting their ecological balance and exploiting their natural resources. Coastal ecosystems are very sensitive to the environmental impact of land use in watersheds, along the coast and further inland, of fluvial discharges, and of marine processes. Weathering, erosion, or waste disposal on land, as well as other activities at sea, such as shipping, dumping or oil extraction, are but a few of the factors which would require that the coastal areas be suitably monitored. Modern techniques of environmental assessment call for the use of integrated observation systems. The collection of data with traditional coastal installations remains an important component of such research. However, the large space scales and short time scales of many near-coastal and/or marine processes require the use of (orbital) remote sensors. In particular, optical sensors, operating in the visible/infrared spectral region, have shown their usefulness for providing novel information on physical, geo-chemical and biological processes of the coastal area. Optical remote sensing of the coastal zone finds applications in studies of land use, surface cover, hydrology and coastal ecology at large; of water quality and sediment transport, coastal runoff and circulation, or dynamical processes (looking, e.g., at the evolution of pigment and/or temperature patterns, and their distribution as related to plankton dynamics, currents or river plumes); as well as in those of energy transfer, carbon cycling and climatology in general. Selected applications of optical observation techniques in the Mediterranean region, conducted in the framework of international demonstration programmes (i.e. the Ocean Colour European Archive Network, OCEAN, Project), provide examples of the remote sensing potential in the field of integrated coastal/marine environmental management.     

A coastal management program for channels located in backbarrier systems

Management of the interactions between social/economic interests and the coastal environment requires practical, interdisciplinary assessment techniques. Backbarrier systems are critical natural resources that provide both economic and social benefits. Activities such as aquaculture, fishing, shipping and port activities, sediment mining, salt extraction, and tourism all take place in these ecosystems but are often not compatible with each other. Therefore, a program to manage such a system must congregate many different types of activities and stakeholders with potentially conflicting interests. In this paper, we develop a proposed coastal management program (CMP), based on the driving-pressure-state-impact-response (DPSIR) framework and the integrated coastal management (ICM) cycle, for the management of channels located in backbarrier systems subject to dredging operations. The conceptual model involves the application of regional sediment management (RSM) actions and is applied to a case study, Faro Channel, located in the Ria Formosa backbarrier system in Algarve, Portugal. The CMP provides results on the interactivity between scientists, stakeholders, and decision-makers, by defining and clarifying the economic and environmental aspects of decision-making processes through the utilisation and measurement of local coastal indicators. The proposed CMP proved to be a useful tool in the definition of coastal management initiatives for channels inside backbarrier systems, since it identified management problems and allowed management solutions to be formulated. The CMP could be used within a broader ICM program but would also be effective when used on its own.