云微物理对一次吉林暖区降水过程的影响

本文运用WRF3.9区域数值模式模拟了2017年7月13日吉林省永吉县暖区暴雨,较好地再现了此次暴雨过程的中尺度对流系统的单体触发、线状对流群触发、组织化发展以及弓状回波等典型阶段的细致过程;在此基础上,分析了造成暖区降水的中尺度对流系统的云微物理特征,探讨了其影响暖区降水的可能机制。结果表明:吉林永吉暖区降水发生在东北冷涡主导的有利的多尺度环境配置下,引发暖区降水的中尺度系统主要是冷云系统,暖区范围大,过冷水分布位置高,冰晶粒子与过冷水并存,并存区的“播种”效应使得其下方生成大量霰。雨水质量收支及热量收支分析表明:暖区降水系统的触发及组织化阶段,雨水的主要来源是云滴碰并增长,主要汇项是冰晶对雨水的收集;而弓状回波阶段,降水的主要源项除了云滴碰并增长之外,霰融化作用也起到关键的作用,降水主要汇项在低层为雨水蒸发,高层为霰对雨滴的收集;暖区降水的主要热源是水汽凝结潜热释放,主要冷却项是雨水和云水的蒸发。弓状回波阶段,其前部的入流与地面冷垫上方的后向入流汇合后将水汽带入高层;“播种”效应使距地面8 km高度附近的霰粒子含量显著增多,该高度与水汽凝结释放大量潜热形成的高温区重合,故霰粒子大量融化为雨水,产生强降水过程。     

2014年春末华南一次暖区暴雨的成因初探及数值预报检验

利用常规气象观测资料、自动站加密观测资料和NCEP 1°×1°逐6 h的再分析资料以及卫星云图、雷达探测资料,对2014年5月8—10日华南暖区暴雨过程的成因进行了初步探讨,同时对这次暴雨过程的EC、T639、JAPAN模式的预报性能也进行了检验等,结果表明:1边界层西南急流、东南风急流造成的强烈辐合与广东珠三角地区的强降水关系密切;2在有利的天气尺度环境条件下,相继发展的MCS具有明显的Back-Building特征,MCS的低质心结构表明对流系统具有明显的热带季风暖云对流性质,具有极高的降水效率,有利于造成局地较高的累积降水量;3数值模式对影响系统及降水量级的预报存在一定偏差,尤其对强降水落区和强度的预报仍需进一步订正,预报员受数值模式预报结果影响,对暴雨和大暴雨在华南中东部存在明显的空报。对8日的暴雨过程的中尺度数值模拟表明,降水物理方案的选择对于暖区对流系统的发生发展影响明显,试验结果表明在采用WM6的微物理方案下,母网格采用Grell对流参数化方案的Run02试验降水模拟结果最为理想,一定程度上反映了暖区对流系统演变状况。     

一次梅雨锋暴雨过程数值模拟的云微物理参数化敏感性研究

梅雨锋暴雨中的云微物理过程对降水的演变有着重要影响。本文通过WRF模式（3.4.1版本）,针对2018年6月29～30日一次梅雨锋背景下的暴雨过程进行数值模拟,分别采用了Morrison、Thompson和MY云微物理参数化方案进行对比分析,结果发现:（1）三个方案模拟的背景场在天气尺度上,都与ERA5再分析资料一致,能够模拟出有利于强降水发生的环流场。云微物理过程对梅雨期暴雨的局地环流有着显著影响,不同方案存在明显差异,本次过程中,Thompson方案模拟出更强的局地环流系统变率和上升气流。三个方案的模拟降水均有所夸大,小时降水率始终大于观测值。冰相粒子融化或雨滴搜集云滴的高估可能是造成降水模拟值偏强的重要原因之一,总体来看,Morrison方案的模拟效果相对最优。（2）冰相粒子融化、雨滴搜集云滴是雨滴增长的关键源项,蒸发则是其最重要的汇项。总的来说,雨滴对云滴的搜集量大于冰相粒子融化。但上述过程在不同方案中存在空间上的差异,从而使得模拟降水的空间分布存在差异。（3）Thompson方案中,冰相粒子融化量最大,雨滴蒸发项显著大于其它两个方案,在底层表现得最为明显。同时,该方案水汽凝结效应最强,使得雨滴搜集更多云滴。该方案模拟的雨滴最多,降水最强。该方案中凝华的主要产物为雪,且其在与过冷水碰并增长过程中占主导地位,故模拟的雪最多。（4）Morrison方案中,水汽主要凝华为雪和少量霰（冰晶忽略不计）;Thompson方案中水汽基本凝华为雪,其它冰相粒子极少;MY方案中,水汽主要凝华为雪和冰晶,冰晶总量略少于雪,但显著大于其它方案。（5）云滴在凇附过程中的总体贡献大于雨滴。Morrison和MY方案中,霰粒子搜集云滴增长的量均最大。Morrison方案中,其它凇附过程不同程度发挥作用,而MY方案中,其它凇附过程几乎可忽略不计。并且,霰粒子搜集云滴的增长量大于凝华过程产生的雪粒子总量。贝吉龙及凇附效应的差异,是不同方案中冰相粒子分布差异的关键原因之一。     

山东半岛一次冷流暴雪过程的中尺度模拟与云微物理特征分析

本文以NCEP-FNL资料作为初始场和边界场,采用WRF中尺度模式对2010年12月29-30日发生在山东半岛的一次冷流暴雪过程进行数值模拟,并利用高时空分辨率模拟结果分析此次过程的中尺度特征和云微物理特征.模拟与分析结果表明,此次暴雪过程发生在较强的海气温差背景下,渤海海表对冷空气的增温增湿作用显著,通过湍流交换等作用向低层大气输送大量感热、潜热和水汽;水汽由渤海中部海域输送到山东半岛东北部地区,其上空水汽辐合层比较浅薄,集中在800 hPa以下,相对湿度饱和层和比湿高值维持的时间与强降雪时段一致;中尺度海岸锋的生消过程对冷流暴雪过程形成有着重要作用,水平方向上呈现为偏北风和偏西风的强辐合带,局地环流中的上升运动触发不稳定能量释放,直接决定暴雪的落区和强度,这是产生浅对流降雪的主要物理机制;云中水凝物粒子的高度在600 hPa以下,最大值出现在850～900 hPa之间与浅对流结构相对应;各水凝物粒子含量相差较大,以雪和霰最多.     

不同云微物理参数化方案对舟曲"8.8"暴雨过程模拟的影响

利用NCEP 每6h一次的1°×1°格点资料和中尺度模式WRF(V3.2),选用Kessler 方案、Lin 方案和Morrison 双参数方案等3 种云微物理参数化方案,对2010 年舟曲"8.8"特大暴雨天气进行了数值模拟试验,以分析不同参数化方案对降水特征、物理量特征和云微物理特征模拟的影响.结果表明,此次暴雨过...     

一次华南前汛期锋前暖区暴雨的分析

利用常规气象观测资料和NCEP再分析资料,分析2008年5月4～5日一次华南前汛期锋前暖区暴雨过程的动力和热力特征,并利用WRF模式对本次过程进行数值模拟.结果表明:该次过程的冷空气较弱,冷锋在南岭山区附近遇到阻挡,有利于锋前暖区的水汽和不稳定能量积累;自地面锋区向暖区倾斜的抬升气流是该次暴雨过程的触发机制;WRF模式...     

两类华南沿海暖区暴雨特征及热力发展机制对比研究

对2009—2014年4—6月的华南沿海暖区暴雨依据低层环流进行分类:第一类为偏南向型,即珠江口以西经向性偏南向辐合线型,由东南、偏南、西南三支气流汇合;第二类为西南向型,即珠江口以东纬向性西南向辐合线型,由偏西和西南风两支气流汇合。6小时强降水统计显示,6年中偏南向型年平均73.2次,西南向型年平均50.3次。南海夏季风爆发后,两种类型发生频数均明显增加。两类低层辐合线系统对应上层的合成特征显示,500 hPa天气形势偏南向型为宽阔暖脊,温度脊落后,有较明显的暖平流,无锋区;西南向型为弱槽,中纬度温度槽落后,锋区偏北,华南位于锋面前暖区,有弱波动。两类暴雨垂直剖面上有深厚垂直速度中心伸展到400 hPa;对应强烈的辐合层为几个垂直叠置的辐合中心;均为水汽充沛,对流不稳定能量层次深厚,有较强凝结潜热释放,造成气柱增暖拉伸,加强深厚多中心辐合及上升气流,其中西南向型凝结潜热释放更强,偏南向型中高层暖平流强于其凝结潜热释放。探讨热力发展机制的数值模拟显示,凝结潜热释放对气柱增温,大大增强暴雨区垂直速度厚度与强度,并增强暴雨区低层辐合环流,减弱中层辐散环流,其影响力达到环流强度的30%~50%,有利于维持强烈对流,促进暖区暴雨的发展。      

不同云微物理方案对青藏高原一次强降水的模拟影响分析

利用WRF模式中三种云微物理参数化方案(Lin、Eta和WSM6)对青藏高原一次强降水过程进行模拟试验,将模拟降水结果与实测资料进行对比,以评估不同云微物理参数化方案对该区域降水过程的模拟性能。结果表明:三种方案均能够模拟出此次降水天气过程的发生,但在主要降水区域和降水强度两方面仍与实测资料存在偏差;在水凝物方面,三种方案对冰粒子的模拟较接近,Lin和WSM6方案模拟的雪粒子差异较大,但霰粒子无明显差异。进一步对比分析了Lin和WSM6方案模拟的云微物理转化过程,结果表明:这两种方案都表现出了霰向雨水转化的特点。在Lin方案中,通过水汽向霰粒子凝华、霰碰并水汽凝华生成的雪粒子以及霰碰并云水这三种过程生成的霰粒子最终融化为雨水。而在WSM6方案中,一方面水汽凝结成云水,云水被雪和霰粒子碰并收集转化为霰,之后霰融化为雨水;另一方面水汽凝华为冰粒子,一部分冰转化为雪,雪直接融化为雨水或转化为霰融化为雨水,另一部分冰转化为霰,霰融化为雨水。      

华北暴雪的云微物理参数化方案的比较模拟

用MM5模式模拟2004年12月20-23日发生在华北地区的一次暴雪天气的发生发展及其演变过程.在四个嵌套网格区域内分别采用Goddard方案(试验G)和Reisner 2方案(试验R)的两个纯显式冰相云微物理参数化方案进行试验.模拟结果表明:试验G和试验R均可以较好的模拟暴雪过程中的环流形势演变、降雪分布和强度,并且两个试验的结果差别不大,但是云中的微物理过程有很大的不同.试验G的主要云微物理过程包括云水的凝结增长、云冰的凝华增长、云冰初始化、云冰被雪碰并、云水被雪碰并、雪的凝华增长、云冰的Bergeron过程等;而试验R的主要云微物理过程包括云冰的凝华增长、云冰转化成雪、雪的凝华增长和霰的凝华增长等.     

一次特大暴雨(雪)天气过程的微物理模拟

利用非静力中尺度模式MM5(V3.7)模拟了2007年3月3-5日发生在辽宁地区的一次特大暴雨(雪)天气过程.分析在相同的天气形势背景下,不同降水类型中心各种水成物的相态分布特点,重点对各种水成物的源项进行详细分析.结果表明:雨水碰并雪成雨是雨水产生的主要云微物理过程,雪、霰和云水的碰并对雨水的形成起着非常重要的作用,...     

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON CHARACTERISTICS AND THERMO- DYNAMIC DEVELOPMENT MECHANISMS OF TWO TYPES OF WARM-SECTOR HEAVY RAINFALL ALONG THE SOUTH CHINA COAST

Warm-sector heavy rainfalls along the south China coast from April to June during 2009–2014 can be divided into two main types based on their low-level circulations. Type I is the southerly pattern with meridional convergence line at the west of the Pearl River estuary, which is formed by the convergence of southeasterly, southerly, and southwesterly flows. Type II is the southwesterly pattern with a latitudinal convergence line at the east of the Pearl River estuary, which is formed by the convergence of westerly and southwesterly flows. Statistics on 6-hourly heavy rainfall events indicates that, during the afore-mentioned 6 years, there were on average 73.2 occurrences of the southerly pattern and 50.3 occurrences of the southwesterly pattern per year. After the onset of summer monsoon in the South China Sea, the occurrence frequencies of both patterns increase remarkably. The synthetic diagnosis of pattern circulation shows that, at 500 hPa, for the southerly pattern, there is a broad warm high ridge, and a temperature ridge is behind the high ridge, which causes an obvious warm advection at the high ridge area. There is no frontal region. For the southwesterly pattern, the circulation is a weak trough with a temperature trough behind it. The position of the frontal region is near Yangzi River, and the south China coast is in the warm-sector of the frontal region. At the vertical cross-section of each of the two categories of heavy rainfall, there is a strong vertical motion center stretching to 400 hPa, where the convergence layer in the rainfall region is deep and with several vertical convergence centers overlapping one another. Both types of heavy rainfalls are with abundant water vapor, accompanied with deep convective instability energy layers, and with strong release of latent heat caused by condensation of water vapor. The release of latent heat leads to the warming-up and stretching of the air column, thus strengthens deep convergence and vertical velocity upward. There is a stronger latent heat-release in the southwesterly pattern than in the southerly pattern, while in the southerly pattern, the warm advection at middle and upper levels is stronger than the latent head release. To study the thermo-dynamic development mechanisms, weather research and forecasting model (WRF) numerical simulations are made and the results show that, in the two rainstorm regions, latent heat release warms up the air column, hence significantly increase the depth and strength of the vertical velocity. Moreover, the release of latent heat strengthens convergent circulation at lower levels and weakens divergent circulation at middle levels, whose influence can be as strong as 30%–50% of the wind circulation strength of the two types of the warm-sector heavy rainfall over the south China coast, and further enhances deep convection, promoting warm-sector storm development.     

珠三角北部一次暖区强降水过程中的地形作用

基于ERA5再分析资料、广东省风廓线雷达、雷达拼图产品和实况观测数据,分析了2020年6月7日夜间—8日珠三角（珠江三角洲）北部暖区强降水过程中主雨带与南岭南部地形走势一致的原因,阐释地形对此次强降水的触发和维持作用。结果表明：（1）此次过程发生在典型的暖区暴雨环流特征的背景下,主要影响系统为对流层中层弱短波槽扰动、低空急流和边界层急流脉冲等;（2）雷达回波表现为团状结构,多以对流单体形态生消,伴随明显的“列车效应”现象,但3个不同发展阶段内回波的持续时间、强度,以及触发地、传播和移动方向等均存在差异;（3）由于边界层西南（偏南）风增强和地形作用,新的对流单体在珠江口附近和珠三角西北侧被触发,同时由于南岭南侧地形对边界层暖湿气流的阻挡和拦截等作用,使得气流在珠三角北部形成明显的辐合抬升,造成该区域内对流单体移速减慢和汇聚,增强了降水强度;（4）强降水长时间的持续与海陆热力差异、冷池和边界层暖湿气流增强等引起的地面露点锋和中尺度辐合线有关。露点锋为强降水的发展和维持提供了热力不稳定条件,地面辐合线加强了对流层底层气流的辐合抬升,进一步增强了强降水区的降水强度。研究结果有助于认识珠三角北部...     

地形对一次粤北暖区暴雨的影响研究

地形对暖区暴雨的发生发展有着重要影响。以粤北一次暖区暴雨为例,从大尺度背景、中尺度特征及预报难点等方面分析了地形的作用,并利用CMA-GD模式进行了地形敏感性试验。结果表明:此次暴雨在副高与西风槽之间的双低空急流下发生,南岭地形对低空急流的动力作用、对θ_se舌和水汽的阻滞拦截作用,为暴雨出现在粤北创造有利条件;地形热力作用下产生的中尺度辐合线是对流触发的机制。敏感性试验显示南岭地形对暖区暴雨的落区影响显著,降水落区随南岭地形升高(降低)而往南(北)偏移。西南急流在经过南岭时,低层风速、散度、温度以及垂直速度都会随地形改变而发生明显变化。当南岭地形高度降低时,正面阻挡和摩擦作用减弱,急流、辐合及上升运动区向北推进到西风槽附近,导致雨区往北偏移;南岭地形高度升高时,地形阻挡和摩擦作用增强,辐合及上升运动区被阻隔在南岭南侧,暖区对流提前触发,雨区发生在粤北。可见,此次暴雨过程主要来自大尺度环流背景的影响,但其落区与南岭地形密切相关。     

强西南急流背景下南岭山脉一次暖区大暴雨数值模拟分析

利用常规观测资料、卫星FY-2G逐时TBB资料,采用WRF中尺度数值模式,对2016年5月5日湘桂粤边界南岭山脉的一次强西南急流背景下预报失败的暖区大暴雨过程(简称16·5过程,下同)进行数值模拟和诊断分析,研究了南岭山脉特殊地形对此次暖区降水过程的动力结构、水汽输送和云降水微物理机制的影响。结果表明,中低层西南气流由于受到南岭多处山脉地形的阻挡、侧摩擦和峡谷等效应的影响反复出现强烈辐合区,导致连续出现超强的水汽辐合中心,造成了湘桂粤边界暖区大暴雨的发生;在南岭特殊地形导致的动力、水汽条件下和有利于云内微物理过程发展的环境下,局地对流云系强烈发展与大尺度西南气流引导的深厚高层冰相云系结合后,云内的过冷云水在强盛的上升气流作用下抬升,丰富的过冷云水有利于贝吉隆过程和结凇进程,促进云内固态粒子增长,这是导致此次暖区大暴雨发生的重要云微物理内因。     

粤港澳大湾区一次局地极端强降水过程的多尺度观测特征与演变分析

2020年5月22日凌晨粤港澳大湾区发生了一次极端强降水过程,最大小时雨量和3小时雨量打破广东省内“龙舟水”期间的历史最高纪录。利用多源观测数据以及ERA5再分析资料对引发局地极端降水的中尺度对流系统(MCS)的演变过程与中尺度特征开展研究。(1)此次强降水过程主要集中在凌晨时段,具有持续时间短、局地雨强极端、累积雨量大等特点,在3小时的降水过程中出现了两个降水峰值。(2)这次过程为一次暖区暴雨过程,低层西南季风提供了充足的暖湿水汽,低涡切变线提供了良好的抬升条件。中α尺度季风云团呈准静止状态并升尺度增长为MCC(中尺度对流复合体)的过程引发了大湾区夜间局地的极端降水。(3)过程中两个阶段的峰值降水与中γ尺度对流单体生消发展期间的传播与移动矢量发生的改变有密切联系。数个中γ尺度对流单体构成多单体风暴形态,呈西北-东南侧向排列,这些单体先后触发发展并有着各自的地面辐合线。对流单体在环境风引导下向偏东南方向移动引发第一阶段峰值降水。随后不同单体的辐合线连接,对流向西南方向传播显著加快,使对流系统移动矢量发生改变,因而造成第二阶段峰值降水。(4)造成两段峰值降水的中γ尺度对流单体结构存在明显...     

一次强降水过程的中尺度对流系统模拟研究

1998年5月23～24日在珠江三角洲地区发生的特大暴雨过程是华南暴雨试验(HUAMEX)加密观测期间的一个典型个例,卫星云图与降水分布表明这是锋面附近与锋前暖区发生的两个中尺度对流系统(简称MCS)造成的强降水。使用非静力原始方程模式MM5较为成功地模拟了这次暴雨过程。根据数值模拟的结果,本文着重分析了发生在锋面上和锋前暖区的两类MCS的中尺度特征,并探讨了这两类MCS的差别。结果表明,两类MCS具有某些共同的中尺度特征,即对流系统的底层和顶部分别存在β尺度的低压和高压中心;低层流场辐合而在对流雨团的顶部辐散出流;对流系统内部具有暖心结构等,但锋面上的MCS较暖区中的对流系统具有更强的斜压性;二者内部的流场与三维运动结构也具有不同的特征,来自西南和偏南方向的空气从底部流入锋前暖区MCS时受到中低压的气压梯度力作用而加速;而锋面上MCS中不仅有来自锋前的暖湿空气,而且还有来自锋后的冷空气参加对流。MCS高空反气旋式发散气流和空气的加速运动反映出MCS顶部存在中尺度高压及向外的气压梯度力,轨迹分析也证明了MCS上空气流的这种非地转特征。     

EXPERIMENTS ON ASSIMILATION OF INITIAL VALUES IN NUMERICAL PREDICTION OF A WARM-SECTOR PRECIPITATION IN SOUTH CHINA

In order to understand the impact of initial conditions upon prediction accuracy of short-termforecast and nowcast of precipitation in South China, four experiments i.e. a control, an assimilation ofconventional sounding and surface data, testing with nudging rainwater data and the assimilation ofradar-derived radial wind, are respectively conducted to simulate a case of warm-sector heavy rainfall thatoccurred over South China, by using the GRAPES_MESO model. The results show that (1) assimilatingconventional surface and sounding observations helps improve the 24-h rainfall forecast in both the areaand order of magnitude; (2) nudging rainwater contributes to a significant improvement of nowcast, and (3)the assimilation of radar-derived radial winds distinctly improves the 24-h rainfall forecast in both the areaand order of magnitude. These results serve as significant technical reference for the study on short-termforecast and nowcast of precipitation over South China in the future.     

THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT PHYSICAL PROCESSES AND THEIR PARAMETERIZATIONS ON FORECAST OF A HEAVY RAINFALL IN SOUTH CHINA IN ANNUALLY FIRST RAINING SEASON

An ensemble prediction system based on the GRAPES model, using multi-physics, is used to discuss the influence of different physical processes in numerical models on forecast of heavy rainfall in South China in the annually first raining season(AFRS). Pattern, magnitude and area of precipitation, evolution of synoptic situation, as well as apparent heat source and apparent moisture sink between different ensemble members are comparatively analyzed. The choice of parameterization scheme for land-surface processes gives rise to the largest influence on the precipitation prediction. The influences of cumulus-convection and cloud-microphysics processes are mainly focused on heavy rainfall;the use of cumulus-convection parameterization tends to produce large-area and light rainfall. Change in parameterization schemes for land-surface and cumulus-convection processes both will cause prominent change in forecast of both dynamic and thermodynamic variables, while change in cloud-microphysics processes show primary impact on dynamic variables. Comparing simplified Arakawa-Schubert and Kain-Fritsch with Betts-Miller-Janjic schemes, SLAB with NOAH schemes, as well as both WRF single moment 6-class and NCEP 3-class with simplified explicit schemes of phase-mixed cloud and precipitation shows that the former predicts stronger low-level jets and high humidity concentration, more convective rainfall and local heavy rainfall, and have better performance in precipitation forecast. Appropriate parameterization schemes can reasonably describe the physical process related to heavy rainfall in South China in the AFRS, such as low-level convergence, latent heat release, vertical transport of heat and water vapor, thereby depicting the multi-scale interactions of low-level jet and meso-scale convective systems in heavy rainfall suitably, and improving the prediction of heavy rainfall in South China in the AFRS as a result.     

SENSITIVITY OF MESOSCALE CONVECTIVE SYSTEMS AND ASSOCIATED HEAVY RAINFALL TO SOIL MOISTURE OVER SOUTH CHINA

The impacts of soil moisture(SM) on heavy rainfall and the development of Mesoscale Convection Systems(MCSs) are investigated through 24-h numerical simulations of two heavy rainfall events that occurred respectively on28 March 2009(Case 1) and 6 May 2010(Case 2) over southern China. The numerical simulations were carried out with WRF and its coupled Noah LSM(Land Surface Model). First, comparative experiments were driven by two different SM data sources from NCEP-FNL and NASA-GLDAS. Secondary, with the run driven by NASA-GLDAS data as a control one, a series of sensitivity tests with different degree of(20%, 60%) increase or decrease in the initial SM were performed to examine the impact of SM on the simulations. Comparative experiment results show that the 24-h simulated cumulative rainfall distributions are not substantially affected by the application of the two different SM data,while the precipitation intensity is changed to some extent. Forecast skill scores show that simulation with NASA-GLDAS SM data can lead to some improvement, especially in the heavy rain(芏50 mm) forecast, where there is up to 5% increase in the TS score. Sensitivity test analysis found that a predominantly positive feedback of SM on precipitation existed in these two heavy rain events but not with completely the same features. Organization of the heavy rainfall-producing MCS seems to have an impact on the feedback process between SM and precipitation. For Case 1, the MCS was poorly organized and occurred locally in late afternoon, and the increase of SM only caused a slight enhancement of precipitation. Drier soil was found to result in an apparent decrease of rainfall intensity,indicating that precipitation is more sensitive to SM reduction. For Case 2, as the heavy rain was caused by a well-organized MCS with sustained precipitation, the rainfall is more sensitive to SM increase, which brings more rainfall. Additionally, distinctive feedback effects were identified from different stages and different organization of MCS, with strong feedback between SM and precipitation mainly appearing in the early stages of the poorly organized MCS and during the late period of the well-organized MCS.