Metamorphism, Fluid Flow and Partial Melting in Pelitic Rocks from the Onawa Contact Aureole, Central Maine, USA

Field, petrologic and geochemical data were used to characterizefluid infiltration and partial melting during metamorphism ofpelitic rocks in the contact aureole of the Onawa pluton, centralMaine, USA. Mineral assemblages delineate five metamorphic zoneswithin the contact aureole: chlorite zone, andalusite–cordierite(a–c) zone, alkali feldspar zone, sillimanite zone andleucocratic-vein (l–v) zone. The sequence of observedmineral assemblages and mineral–fluid reactions calculatedby mass balance is similar to those observed in other contactaureoles. Pressure of contact metamorphism is 3 kbar, on thebasis of optimum geothermobarometry calculations. Metamorphictemperatures vary from 500C in the andalusite–cordieritezone to 65OC in the leucocratic-vein zone. Data from fieldobservations, mineral textures, observed reaction stoichiometry,geothermometry and major-element geochemistry suggest that theleucocratic veins of the l-v zone represent crystallized, partialmelts. Two overall calculated mineral reactions are responsiblefor vein formation: which can be modeled as combinations of two NKFMTASH meltingreactions: Progress of (M1) and (M2) was measured in eight samples, andreaction (M1) is the dominant melt-forming reaction in all samples.Partial melting (and vein formation) was therefore driven byinfiltration of the l-v zone by H²O-rich fluids. Calculatedtime-integrated fluid fluxes for l-v zone samples range from09 10⁴ to 31 10⁴ mol/cm², and flow was in the directionof increasing temperature. KEY WORDS: pelites; contact metamorphism; fluid infiltration; partial melting; Onawa Pluton; Maine; USA ^*Corresponding author. Telephone:(516) 632–8192. Fax (516)632–8240 e-mail: gsymmes{at}ccmail.sunysb.edu     

Carbon and oxygen isotopic covariations in hydrothermal calcites

Isotopic covariations of carbon and oxygen in hydrothermal calcites are quantitatively modeled in terms of the following three mixing processes: (1) mixing between two different fluids which leads to the precipitation of calcite; (2) mixing between fluid and rock: (a) calcite precipitation due to fluid/rock interaction, (b) secondary alteration of primary calcite by interaction with a subsequent fluid. The models are derived from mass balance equations. A distinction among the three mixing processes can be made on a ¹³C vs ¹⁸O diagram, which places important constraints on the genesis of hydrothermal mineralization. The variables which control the ultimate isotopic composition of hydrothermal calcites include the composition of the initial fluid and the wallrock, temperature, and dissolved carbon species. Owing to significant temperature-dependent fractionation effects during equilibrium precipitation of calcite from a hydrothermal fluid, the mixing processes may be distinguished by telltale patterns of isotopic data in ¹³C vs ¹⁸O space. In particular, caution must be exercised in postulating the fluid mixing as the cause for mineral deposition. This is demonstrated for hydrothermal Pb-Zn deposits in the western Harz Mountains, Germany. A positive correlation between ¹³C and ¹⁸O values is observed for calcites from the Bad Grund deposit in the Upper Harz. Two sample profiles through calcite veins show similar correlations with the lowest -values at the center of the veins and the highest -values at the vein margins. Because the correlation array has a greater slope than for calcite precipitation at equilibrium in a closed system and because fluid mixing may not proceed perpendicular to the vein strike, it is assumed that a fluid/rock interaction is responsible for the observed correlation and thus for the precipitation of calcite. A deep-seated fluid is inferred with a ¹³C value of — 7% and a ¹⁸O value of +10%., as well as H₂CO₃ as the dominant dissolved carbon species; precipitation temperatures of the calcites are estimated to be about 280 170°C. Quite different isotopic distributions are observed for calcites from the St. Andreasberg deposit in the Middle Harz. An alteration model is suggested based mainly on the isotopic distribution through a calcite vein. In addition to a primary fluid which has the same isotopic composition as that in the Bad Grund deposit and thus seems to be responsible for the precipitation of calcite associated with sulfides, an evolved, HCO ₃ ^- -dominant subsurface fluid with ¹³C about -20 — 15% and ¹⁸O 0% is deduced to alter the primary calcite at low temperatures of 70 40°C.     

Experimental constraints on the storage conditions of phonolites from the Kerguelen Archipelago

Phase relations of a phonolite (K1) and a tephri-phonolite (K2) from the Upper Miocene lavas in the Southeast Province of the Kerguelen Archipelago have been investigated in the P/T range 100–500 MPa and 700–900 °C at two fO₂ conditions (~ NNO and ~ NNO+2.3) to clarify the differentiation and pre-eruptive conditions of these magmas. Crystallization experiments were performed in cold seal pressure vessels (CSPV) and internally heated pressure vessels (IHPV) at various X_H2O, under reducing (log fO₂ ~ NNO) and oxidizing conditions (log fO₂ ~ NNO+2.3). Under reducing conditions, the resulting phase assemblage for K1 was: titanomagnetite, nepheline, alkali feldspar, clinopyroxene and biotite; under oxidizing conditions, the assemblage was: magnetite, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, nepheline, titanite (minerals given in the order of appearance with decreasing T at 200 MPa for 4 wt% water in the melt). It is emphasized that an effect of fO₂ on the phase stability of feldspars and feldspathoides was observed. Comparison of the natural and experimental phase assemblages shows that the pre-eruptive conditions for K1 must have been in the log fO₂ range NNO+1–NNO+2, at pressures above 200–250 MPa. Assuming a temperature of 800 °C, the water content of the melt is constrained to be between 4 and 6 wt% H₂O. The pre-eruptive fO₂ conditions for the less evolved sample K2 are more oxidizing with log fO₂ close to NNO+2.3. The experimental results show that the enrichment of alkalis in residual melts during differentiation of tephri-phonolites is enhanced at high fO₂.Editorial responsibility: J. Hoefs     

Intersecting Isograds in the Whetstone Lake Area, Ontario

Pelitic and calcareous rocks in the Whetstone Lake area havean unusually wide range of chemical composition. Metamorphicreactions have been deduced that represent the observed ‘discontinuities’in compatible mineral assemblages, and by plotting the reactantand the product assemblage of each reaction on a map, metamorphicisograds have been delincated ‘from both sides’.For the pelitic rocks, successively higher-grade isograds arebased on the following reactions: (1)chlorite+muscovite+garnetstaurolite+biotite+quartz+water; (2) chlorite+muscovite+staurolite+quartz kyanite+biotite+water; (3) kyanitesillimanite; (4)staurolite+museovite+quartzsillimanite+garnet+biotite+water. A fifth isograd, based on the reaction (5) biotite+calcite+quartzCa-amphibole+K-feldspar+carbon dioxide+water intersects the isograds based on reactions (2), (3), and (4)in such a manner as to indicate that the H₂O/CO₂ fugacity ratiowas significantly higher in the vicinity of a granite plutonthan in the metasedimentary rocks remote from the pluton. Chemicalanalyses of the coexisting minerals in reaction (5) indicatethat the real reaction may involve plagioclase, epidote, sphene,and Fe-Ti oxides as well.     

Stable isotopic evidence for large-scale seawater infiltration in a regional metamorphic terrane; the Trois Seigneurs Massif,Pyrenees, France

Oxygen isotopic analyses of 95 metamorphic and igneous rocks and minerals from a Hercynian metamorphic sequence in the Trois Seigneurs Massif, Pyrenees, France, indicate that all lithologies at higher metamorphic grades than the andalusite in isograd have relatively homogeneous ¹⁸O values. The extent of homogenization is shown by the similarity of ¹⁸O values in metacarbonates, metapelites and granitic rocks (+11 to +13), and by the narrow range of oxygen isotopic composition shown by quartz from these lithologies. These values contrast with the ¹⁸O values of metapelites of lower metamorphic grade ( ¹⁸O about +15). Homogenization was caused by a pervasive influx of hydrous fluid. Mass-balance calculations imply that the fluid influx was so large that its source was probably high-level groundwaters or connate formation water. Hydrogen isotopic analyses of muscovite from various lithologies are uniform and exceptionally heavy at D=–25 to –30, suggesting a seawater origin. Many lines of petrological evidence from the area independently suggest that metamorphism and anatexis of pelitic metasediment occurred at depths of 6–12 km in the presence of this water-rich fluid, the composition of which was externally buffered. Deep penetration of surface waters in such environments has been hitherto unrecognized, and may be a key factor in promoting major anatexis of the continental crust at shallow depth. Three types of granitoid are exposed in the area. The leucogranites and the biotite granite-quartz diorite are both mainly derived from fusion of local Paleozoic pelitic metasediment, because all these rocks have similar whole-rock ¹⁸O values (+11 to +13). The post-metamorphic biotite granodiorite has a distinctly different ¹⁸O (+9.5 to +10.0) and was probably derived from a deeper level in the crust. Rare mafic xenoliths within the deeper parts of the biotite granite-quartz diorite also have different ¹⁸O (+8.0 to +8.5) and possibly represent input of mantle derived magma, which may have provided a heat source for the metamorphism.Contribution No. 4192, Publications of the Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology     

Die stratigraphisch-paläogeographische Entwicklung des Jura in Westsizilien

Zusammenfassung Im Jura Westsiziliens lassen sich etwa von der Grenze Mittel-/Oberlias ab vier paläogeographische Einheiten unterscheiden. Den zentralen Teil des Gebietes nimmt die Westsizilianische Schwelle ein, ausgezeichnet durch eine Schichtlücke zwischen Mittellias und Bathonium und durch eine geringmächtige Cephalopodenkalkfazies im Oberdogger — Malm. Im Nordwesten (Monte Erice) herrscht eine ziemlich einförmige Sedimentation von Hornstein-Plattenkalken vom Oberlias bis in die Unterkreide, in der gelegentliche Diskontinuitäten und Kondensation Schwelleneinfluß verraten. Kennzeichnend für die Nordsizilianische Fazies ist eine mergelig kieselige Serie, gefolgt von Riffkalken, die eine Heraushebung im Tithon anzeigen. Die stratigraphisch bisher wenig bekannten zentralen Monti Sicani lassen paläogeographische Beziehungen zu Nordsizilien erkennen, machen jedoch im Tithon eine eigenständige pelagische Entwicklung ähnlich der Westsizilianischen Schwelle durch.

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In the west Sicilian Jurassic from about the boundary middle/upper Liassic, four palaeogeographical regions can be recognized. Of these the West Sicilian Ridge in the centre of the area is characterized by a gap between the middle Liassic and the Bathonian, and by a thinly developed facies of cephalopod limestone in the upper Dogger and Malm. In the north-west (Monte Erice) a fairly uniform pelagic sedimentation of cherty platy limestone dominates from the upper Liassic into the lower Cretaceous. In this series occasoinal discontinuities and condensation indicate temporary influence of the West Sicilian Ridge. In the north Sicilian facies a clay-siliceous rocktype is prevalent, and is succeeded after an upheaval in the Tithonian by reef-limestone. The stratigraphically little known central Sicani Mountains show a palaeogeographical relationship to northern Sicily, however, in the Tithonian an individual pelagic development is present similar to that of the West Sicilian Ridge.

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Résumé Dans le Jurassique de la Sicile occidentale, environ à partir de la limite Lias moyen/supérieur, on peut distinguer quatre zones paléogéographiques. Au centre de la région, le Seuil de la Sicile occidentale est caractérisé d'une lacune stratigraphique entre le Lias moyen et le Bathonien et, pendant le Dogger supérieur et le Malm, d'un faciès de calcaire peu épais à céphalopodes. Au nord-ouest (Mont Erice), à partir du Lias supérieur jusqu'au Crétacé inférieur, se trouve une sédimentation assez monotone de calcaire riche en nodules de silex, où discontinuités et condensation occasionelles indiquent l'influence du Seuil de la Sicile occidentale. Dans le faciès de la Sicile septentrionale prédominent des sédiments silico-marneux suivis de calcaires récifaux désignants un soulèvement dans le Tithonique. Les Monts Sicani centraux, jusqu'ici peu connus, font apparaître des relations paléogéographiques avec la Sicile septentrionale, mais, pendant le Tithonique, ils suivent une évolution pélagique particulière comparable à celle du Seuil de la Sicile occidentale.

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Riassunto Nel Giura della Sicila occidentale a partire circa dal limite Lias medio — Lias superiore si possono distinguere quattro zone paleogeografiche. Di queste, la soglia della Sicilia occidentale, nel centra, è caratterizzata da una lacuna stratigrafica tra il Lias medio e il Bathoniano e da una facies poco potente di calcari a cefalopodi nel Dogger superiore — Malm. Nella parte nord-occidentale dell'isola (Monte Erice) si ha dal Lias superiore al Cretaceo inferiore una sedimentazione pelagica piuttosto uniforme di calcari con liste e noduli di selce in cui discontinuità e condensazioni occasionali rivelano influsso della soglia. Nella facies della Sicilia settentrionale prevalgono sedimenti marnoso-selciferi seguiti da calcari recifali che indicano un sollevamento nel Titonico. Nei Monti Sicani centrali finora stratigraficamente poco conosciuti si hanno rapporti paleogeografici con la Sicilia settentrionale, mentre nel Titonico si sviluppa una sedimentazione pelagica analoga a quella della soglia della Sicilia occidentale.

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Vorgelegt bei dem 2. Intern. Jurakolloquium Luxemburg, Juli 1967.     

Isotopic composition of oxygen and hydrogen in mud-volcanic waters from Taman (Russia) and Kakhetia (Eastern Georgia)

The ¹⁸O and D values in mud-volcanic waters of the Taman Peninsula and Kakhetia vary from +0.7 to +10.0 and from –37 to –13 , respectively. These values increase as the Greater Caucasus is approached. The increase in 18O and D also positively correlates with fluid generation temperatures based on hydrochemical geothermometers. This is accompanied by changes in the chemical composition of waters, in which contents of alkali metals, HCO^– ₃ ion, and boron increase, while the content of halogen ions (Cl, Br, J) decreases. Changes in the isotopic composition of water are also accompanied by the increase of ¹³ in methane and decrease of ¹¹ B in clays. Analysis of formal models of the evolution of isotopic composition of mud-volcanic waters showed that mud volcanoes are recharged by freshened water from the Maikop paleobasin with an inferred isotopic composition of D –40 and ¹⁸ O –6. Based on this assumption, the ¹⁸O and D values observed in mud-volcanic waters can be explained not only by processes of distillation and condensation in a closed system, but also by combined processes of isotopic reequilibration in the water-illite-methane system.Translated from Litologiya i Poleznye Iskopaemye, No. 2, 2005, pp. 143–158.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Lavrushin, Dubinina, Avdeenko.     

Patterns of fluid flow in the contact aureole of the Late Miocene Monte Capanne pluton (Elba Island,Italy): the role of structures and rheology

Fluid–rock interaction was investigated in the inner aureole of the Late Miocene Monte Capanne pluton on Elba Island (Tuscany, central Italy) by integrating structural, petrological, fluid inclusion, and stable isotope analyses. In the north-western sector of the aureole (Procchio–Spartaia area), calc–silicates alternate with nearly pure carbonate layers at the metre scale. Close to the pluton, the prograde metamorphic sequence includes calc–silicates that transition within a few metres to overlying nearly pure calcite marbles. The calc–silicates are extensively metasomatised to form massive wollastonite-grossular-bearing exoskarn. The mineralogical assemblage found in the marbles and the unshifted carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios in calcite attest that the fluid phase was internally buffered. On the other hand, the calc–silicates constituted channels for infiltration of disequilibrium fluids of magmatic origin. Fluid infiltration was enhanced by hydrofracturing and structurally-controlled by existing planar anisotropies in calc–silicates (layering and lithological boundaries). At the metamorphic peak (∼600°C and 1.5–2 kbar), the marble–calc–silicate interface acted as a barrier to fluids exsolved from the crystallising intrusions, separating two different flow patterns in the inner aureole: a high fluid–flux region on its higher grade side (Wol-zone) and a low fluid–flux region on the lower-grade side (Cpx zone). Results of this study: (1) documented that fluid pathways in the aureole rocks at the top of the pluton were largely horizontal, controlled by the lithological layering and the pluton–host rock contact; and (2) elucidated the primary control exerted by the structural and rheological properties of the host rocks on the geometry of fluid flow during pluton emplacement.     

Lu–Hf and geochemical systematics of recycled ancient oceanic crust: evidence from Roberts Victor eclogites

Eclogites from the Roberts Victor mine, Kaapvaal craton are classic examples of subducted Achaean oceanic crust brought up as xenoliths by kimberlite. New in situ trace element and oxygen isotope data (¹⁸O=3.09–6.99 SMOW) presented here reemphasise their origin from seawater-altered plagioclase-rich precursors. Their Hf–Nd isotopic compositions are not in agreement with compositions predicted by geochemical modelling of the isotopic composition of aged subducted oceanic crust. Instead, Hf isotopic compositions are very heterogeneous, varying between 0.281625 and 0.355077 (–37.8 and +2561 _Hf) at the time of kimberlite emplacement (128 Ma) in keeping with equally variable Nd isotopic compositions (0.511124–0.545092; –26.3 to +636 _Nd). However, most samples plot on the terrestrial array. The isotopic compositions of some samples are too extreme to play a major role in mixed peridotite-eclogite melting in basalt source regions, whereas the isotopic composition of other samples is reconcilable with a contribution of up to ca. 15% of eclogite partial melt to the MORB source. Most importantly, our results show that ancient subducted oceanic crust is not isotopically homogeneous and should not be treated as a component or reservoir during geochemical modelling. The heterogeneity reflects radiogenic in-growth starting from small compositional heterogeneities in gabbroic protoliths, followed by modification during sea-floor alteration, subduction and emplacement into the subcratonic lithosphere.     

Mineralogical applications of the lattice constant variance-covariance matrices

Summary Direct and reciprocal lattice constant variance-covariance matrices when involved in the Law of Propagation of Errors can be used to gain a full evaluation of the error terms in mineralogical quantities expressed in terms of lattice constants. Properties and relationships which mutually connect the two matrices are discussed, with emphasis placed on physical dimensions. A practical application is given by calculating the error terms in the structural indicators (bc) and (^**) of alkali feldspars. The differences between values obtained by using both variances plus covariances and those obtained using variances alone, are very small. However, as the calculations are completely automated, the full formulation using variances plus covariances represents a suitable better approach.

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Mineralogische Anwendungen der Varianz-Kovarianz-Matrizen der Gitterkonstanten

Zusammenfassung Varianz-Kovarianz-Matrizen der direkten und reziproken Gitterkonstanten können beim Fehlerfortpflanzungsgesetz benützt werden, um eine vollständige Auswertung der Fehlerausdrücke mineralogischer Größen, ausgedrückt durch Gitterkonstanten, zu erhalten. Eigenschaften und Beziehungen, welche diese beiden Matrizen gegenseitig verknüpfen, werden mit Betonung physikalischer Dimensionen diskutiert. Eine praktische Anwendung wird gegeben, indem die Fehlerausdrücke der strukturellen Indikatoren (bc) und (^**) von alkalifeldspäten berechnet werden. Die Differenzen zwischen den Werten, die bei Benützung von Varianzen und Kovarianzen, bzw. nur von Varianzen erhalten wurden, sind sehr klein. Da aber die Berechnungen voll automatisiert sind, bietet die vollständige Formulierung mit Varianzen plus Kovarianzen eine brauchbare bessere Methode.

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With 1 Figure     

O18/O16 ratios of the Johnny Lyon granodiorite and Texas Canyon quartz monzonite plutons,Arizona, and their contact aureoles

O¹⁸/O¹⁶ ratios have been measured for 29 quartz samples, 6 whole-rocks, 3 muscovites, and 1 K-feldspar from two adjacent granitic plutons of vastly different age (about 1660 m.y, and 70 m.y.) intruded into the same type of country rock, the Precambrian Pinal schist. Sample traverses were made across 3 different contact zones of these intrusive bodies. Except for 2 quartz veins with O¹⁸=+11.0 and + 12.3, all quartz samples collected more than 15 cm from the margin of the Early Tertiary Texas Canyon pluton are isotopically exceedingly uniform with O¹⁸=9.47±0.11. Four quartz samples collected more than 10 m from the margin of the Precambrian Johnny Lyon pluton have O¹⁸=10.43±0.08. Compared with previous studies of this type, only relatively minor O¹⁸-enrichments have occurred in the border zones of the plutons. This is in part because the original O¹⁸ differences between the metasedimentary rocks and the intrusives are relatively small (only 3 to 6), but is mainly due to the lack of H₂O in the contact zones during intrusion as a result of the general impermeability and prior dehydration of the schist. There is no isotopic evidence for significant influx of external H₂O into either of the plutons during their crystallization and cooling. However, in roof-zones where metasedimentary rocks overlie the plutons there is a strong O¹⁸ lowering in the contact metamorphic aureoles, indicating upward expulsion of low-O¹⁸ magmatic H₂O into these rocks.Contribution No. 2015 of the Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91109.     

Phase relations in andalusite-sillimanite type Fe-rich metapelites: Tono contact metamorphic aureole, northeast Japan

Mineral assemblages in metapelites of the contact aureole of the Tono granodiorite mass, northeast Japan, change systematically during progressive metamorphism along an isobaric path at 2-3 kbar. The bulk rock compositions of metapelites are aluminous with A' values on an AFM projection larger than that of the chlorite join. The metapelites commonly contain paragonite in the low-grade zone. With increasing temperatures, andalusite is formed by the breakdown of paragonite. The importance of pyrophyllite as a source of Al₂SiO₅ polymorphs is limited in typical pelitic rocks.
The most common type of metapelite in the study area has FeO/(FeO + MgO) = 0.5–0.6, and develops assemblages involving chlorite, andalusite, biotite, cordierite, K-feldspar, sillimanite and almandine, with paragenetic changes similar to other andalusite-sillimanite type aureoles. Rocks with FeO/(FeO + MgO) > 0.8 progressively develop chloritoid-bearing assemblages from Bt-Chl-Cld, And-Bt-Cld, to And-Bt at temperatures between the breakdown of paragonite and the appearance of cordierite in the more common pelitic rocks in the aureole. The paragenetic relations are explained by a KFMASH univariant reaction of Chl + Cld = And + Bt located to the low-temperature side of the formation of cordierite by the terminal equilibrium of chlorite. A P-T model depicting the relative stability of chloritoid and staurolite at low- and medium-pressure conditions, respectively, is proposed, based on the derived location of the Chl + Cld = And + Bt reaction combined with the theoretical phase relations among biotite, chlorite, chloritoid, garnet and staurolite.     

Carbon and oxygen isotopic composition of carbonates in lavas and ejectites from the Alban Hills,Italy

Carbon and oxygen isotopic analyses have been carried out on carbonates from lavas, ejectites and sedimentary formations in the region of the Alban Hills.The calcite occurring in the lavas, both in veins and cavities and dispersed in the groundmass shows within each flow a fairly uniform isotopic composition not different from that normally observed in sedimentary carbonates, except in the case of one particular flow, where unusually low ¹³C values were recorded. The latter are discussed in terms of a possible contribution of organic carbon or of isotopically light carbonates, the presence of which in the Alban Hills area had been previously recorded.The ejectites examined comprise both limestone and dolostone blocks of various degree of metamorphism and materials of uncertain origin, some of which containing carbon and oxygen of isotopic composition wholly different from that of all carbonates analysed in this work, approaching the range observed in some carbonatites. The isotopic data and the geochemical features of the latter materials are discussed in terms of thermal metamorphism of limestones and of a possible syntexis of evaporite materials.The ¹⁸O and ¹³C values of certain marine limestones from major Mesozoic sedimentary formations in the region are also reported.     

The sillimanite-potash feldspar isograd in Western Maine,U.S.A.

The techniques of electron probe microanalysis and x-ray diffractometry have been utilized in a study of the sillimanite-potassium feldspar isograd in western Maine. The isograd reaction is theoretically a discontinuous one, calling for the nearly instantaneous loss of muscovite and crystallization of sillimanite and orthoclase, with a small contribution of albite from the pre-existing plagioclase. In fact, muscovite coexists with orthoclase, sillimanite, and plagioclase for a distance of at least seven miles from the isograd (marked by the initial coexistence of orthoclase and sillimanite). In this assemblage, muscovite has an extremely narrow range of composition, about an average of Ms_93.5Pg_6.5. A possible explanation for the divariant character of the isograd reaction is that, during dehydration, PH₂O slowly increased from initial values less than P_total + rock strength, under conditions of low permeability, the actual value of PH₂O being controlled by a buffer assemblage and local conditions of P and T. An alternative explanation postulates the flattening of thermal gradients following the onset of fractional melting. The isograd reaction is dependent in only a minor way upon the anorthite content of the plagioclase. Below the isograd, a continuous reaction takes place leading to a diminution in paragonite content of muscovite stable in the presence of quartz. It is possible that this reaction leads to the nearly ubiquitous normal zoning of the plagioclase. Changes in the composition of biotite at the isograd are not conspicuous, and can be satisfactorily explained by the release of Mg, Fe, and Ti impurity from the muscovite, and a continuous reaction between ilmenite, quartz, and muscovite. Garnets are not abundant and are high in Mn, both facts probably due to the low pressure of metamorphism, The presence of garnet probably relates to the Mn content of the rock, and seems to be independent of the Mg/Fe ratio of the biotite. The garnets are zoned with respect to Mn and Mg, but often Mn is enriched and Mg depleted in the marginal zone. The Mg/Fe ratio of the biotite varies twofold depending on the presence or absence of pyrrhotite. The transition: microcline → orthoclase depends upon the amount of dissolved albite; the polymorph is orthoclase in the pelitic schists but microcline in the calc-silicate rocks which are much lower in sodium. The plagioclases are of “low” structural type, although is slightly greater than many other “low” plagioclases. A correlation of d(002) of muscovite and paragonite solid solution for the range 0 to 20 % paragonite is given. An appreciable positive volume of mixing for the binary system muscovite-paragonite is indicated.     

Biofacies analysis of Upper Jurassic marginally marine environments of Portugal,I. The carbonate-dominated facies at Cabo Espichel,Estremadura

The Upper Kimmeridgian to Upper Portlandian sequence at Cabo Espichel (Estremadura, Portugal) consists of a succession of neritic carbonates with intercalations of clastic sediments which range from marls to conglomerates. Eight major facies types could be distinguished based on their macrofauna, microfauna, trace fossils, sedimentary structures, and microfacies. They range from generally very shallow subtidal nodular biomicrites, coral biostromes, and intertidal algal laminites to prodelta silts and marls, fluviatile conglomerates and alluvial red beds.These facies are thought to have been deposited on a very protected, but very shallow inner shelf which was separated from the open sea by a series of diapir ridges in the form of swells or island chains. This extensive lagoon was generally subject to minor salinity fluctuations due to, either freshwater influx from the land, or heavy seasonal rainfall. Periodic uplift of the Hercynian basement in the east caused increased erosion of the land mass and short-time progradation of the continental facies towards the west, before marine sedimentation, due to a fairly high rate of subsidence, resumed.

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Zusammenfassung Das das Oberkimmeridge bis Oberportland umfassende Profil des Cabo Espichel (Estremadura, Portugal) besteht aus einer Wechselfolge von neritischen Kalken uncl klastischen, mergeligen bis konglomeratischen Sedimenten. Die Untersuchung der Makrofauna, Mikrofauna, Spurenfossilien, Sedimentstrukturen und Mikrofazies erlaubt die Unterscheidung von acht Hauptfaziestypen. Sie reichen von knolligen Biomikriten des sehr flachen Subtidals über Korallenbiostrome, intertidale Algenlaminite bis zu Silten und Mergeln des Prodeltabereiches, fluviatilen Konglomeraten und alluvialen Red Bed-Sedimenten.Es wird angenommen, daß sich diese Fazies in einem sehr geschützten und gleichzeitig sehr flachen Innenschelf gebildet haben, der vom offenen Meer durch eine Reihe von Diapir-Rücken in Form von Schwellenoder Insel-Ketten abgetrennt war. Diese ausgedehnte Lagune zeigte etwas schwankende Salinität, die entweder durch Süßwasserzufluß vom Festland oder durch jahreszeitlich bedingte starke Niederschläge verursacht wurde. Periodische Hebungen des herzynischen Kristallinsockels im Osten führten zu verstärkter Abtragung von festländischem Material und kurzzeitigen Vorstößen der kontinentalen Fazies nach Westen, die aufgrund relativ hoher Subsidenz bald wieder von mariner Sedimentation abgelöst wurden.

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Résumé Le profil du Cabo Espichel (Estramadure, Portugal) comportant la série allant du Kimmeridgien supérieur au Portlandien supérieur, consiste en une alternance de calcaires néritiques et de sédiments clastiques, marneux à conglomératiques. Des recherches portant sur la microfaune et la macrofaune, les fossiles en traces, les structures sédimentaires et les microfacies ont permis la distinction de 8 facies principaux. Ceux-ci vont depuis des biomicrites nodulaires de régions subtidales très plates, à des silts et marnes prodeltaÏques, conglomerats fluviatiles et sèdiments rouges alluviaux, en passant par des biostromes coralliens et des laminites algaires intertidales. Il en est déduit que ces facies se sont formés dans un shelf interne à la fois très protégé et très plat qui était séparé de la mer ouverte par une série de rides diapiriques sous forme de seuils et de chaÎnes d'Îles. Cette vaste lagune montrait une salinité quelque peu changeante provenant soit de l'apport continental d'eaux douces, soit de fortes chutes pluviométriques saisonnières. Des soulèvements périodiques du socle cristallin hercynien à l'est conduisirent à une érosion renforcée du matériau continental et à une avancée momentanée du facies continental vers l'ouest qui, par suite d'une subsidence relativement forte a fait rapidement place à une sédimentation marine.

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Petrology of metapelites in the Bugaboo aureole,British Columbia,Canada

Contact metamorphism of greenschist facies Neoproterozoic turbidites by the Cretaceous Bugaboo Batholith in southeastern British Columbia has resulted in a well‐developed contact aureole. The aureole is about 1 km wide and can be divided into three main zones: (i) spotted phyllite zone, extending from the first appearance of spots of cordierite or andalusite to the last occurrence of primary chlorite; (ii) cordierite + andalusite + biotite zone, comprising hornfelses or schists with abundant porphyroblasts of cordierite and andalusite and, at higher grades, fibrolitic sillimanite; and (iii) K‐feldspar zone, characterized by hornfelses and schists that, in the inner part of this zone, are variably migmatitic. Four parts of the aureole were examined, three of which are characterized by schists, and one of which (Cobalt Lake area) is characterized by hornfelses and has exceptional exposure and comparatively unaltered rocks. Petrographic, modal, mineral‐compositional and whole rock‐compositional data were collected from the Cobalt Lake transect, allowing the prograde reaction sequence to be inferred. Notable features of the aureole at Cobalt Lake include: initial development of andalusite and plagioclase at the expense of paragonite‐rich white mica; a narrow interval across which cordierite, andalusite and biotite increase markedly at the expense of chlorite; gradual development of andalusite and biotite at the expense of cordierite and muscovite upgrade of chlorite consumption; and near‐simultaneous development of andalusite + K‐feldspar and sillimanite, the latter indicating a pressure of contact metamorphism of ~3 kbar. In other parts of the aureole, the development of sillimanite downgrade of the initial development of K‐feldspar suggests slightly higher pressures of contact metamorphism. Lack of correspondence between the observed sequence of reactions in the aureole and those predicted thermodynamically suggests that modifications to some of the thermodynamic data or activity–composition models may be required. Textural features in the aureole suggest the influence of kinetic factors on metamorphic recrystallization, including: (i) deformation‐catalysed reaction in the schists compared to the hornfelses, as indicated by different mineral‐growth sequences inferred from microstructures, and (ii) heating rate‐controlled recrystallization, as indicated by the decrease in grain size of hornfelses with increasing metamorphic grade.     

Carbon isotopic study on coexisting calcite and graphite in the Ryoke metamorphic rocks,northern Kiso district,central Japan

Carbon isotope fractionation between coexisting calcite and grpahite ( ¹³C_cc-gr) has been determined in metamorphosed limestones and calc-silicate rocks from the Ryoke metamorphic belt in the northern Kiso district. In this district, the Ryoke metamorphic rocks, ranging from the lower greenschist facies to the upper amphibolite facies, are widely distributed. The fractionation of ¹³C/¹²C between calcite and graphite decreases regularly with increasing metamorphic grade and is independent of absolute ¹³C values of calcite. This evidence suggests that carbon isotopic exchange equilibrium has been attained during metamorphism even in the greenschist facies and isotopic modification, possibly caused by retrogressive metamorphism, is not distinguished. For T=270–650° C, the fractionation is expressed by the following equation: ¹³C_cc-gr=8.9×10⁶T^–2–7.1 (T in °K).This equation has a slope steeper than the current results on the ¹³C_cc-gr versus 10⁶T^–2 diagram. It can be used as a potential geothermometer for almost the entire temperature range of metamorphism. ¹³C values of carbonaceous matter in unmetamorphosed limestones in this district are approximately –22, due to its biogenic origin. Graphite from metamorphosed limestones is also considered to be of biogenic origin but shows enrichment of ¹³C due to isotopic exchange with calcite. ¹³C values of graphite as well as ¹³C_cc-gr confirm that zone II represents the lowest grade zone of Ryoke metamorphism. The maximum equilibrium fractionation of ¹³C between calcite and graphite is considered to be approximately 23%, which corresponds to 270° C. Below this temperature, it seems that carbon isotopic exchange between the minerals does not occur.Calcite in marble from the higher grade zones has relatively lower ¹³C and ¹⁸O values. The depletion of heavy isotopes is considered to be caused by the loss of ¹³C and ¹⁸O enriched carbon dioxide during decarbonation reactions. For oxygen, it is considered that isotopic exchange with metamorphic fluids plays an important role in lowering the ¹⁸O value of calcite in some higher grade marbles.     

Heretical views on mountain building in Europe and North America: Harbingers of modern tectonics

Since Hutton's doctrine of internal dynamics, geologists have striven to find a rationale for the forces that engender mountain ranges. The 19th century vogue in geological opinion came to a consensus of thermal contraction, and ana priori assumption of shrinking of the globe. Outcrop relations were interpreted accordingly. But leading geologists on both sides of the Atlantic soon observed structures not accounted for by the prevailing hypothesis. The Alpine school of mobilism introduced tectonic polarity (Suess, 1875), nappes (Bertrand, 1884), thrust plates (Termier, 1903) and reached its climax with Argand's visionary perception of crustal flux, of closing ocean basins, and of colliding continents. While the nappe theory was being debated in Europe, another controversy with respect to mountain building surfaced in the American West: the derivation of the Basin Ranges (Gilbert, 1876). Just as the early proponents of large-scale crustal shortening felt that they must dissent from established views, so their contemporaries in America paradoxically discovered still another reason for mountain building, namely, that of crustal extension (Russel, 1884;Le Conte, 1889).

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Zusammenfassung ObwohlHutton (1795) die endogene Herkunft der gebirgsbildenden Kräfte bereits erkannt hatte, sind die physikalischen Grundlagen der Orogenese bis heute nicht abgeklärt worden. Im letzten Jahrhundert waren sich die Forscher zwar einig, daß thermale Erdschrumpfung den Faltenschub bewirke; und entsprechende Querschnitte durch die Faltengebirge sind denn auch zu wissenschaftlichem Allgemeingut geworden. Der bekannteste Fall ist wohl die Glarner Doppelfalte in den Zentralpen (Heim, 1878). Im Gefolge fortschreitender Geländeaufnahmen in den Gebirgen Europas und Nordamerikas erschien das Kontraktionsmodell der Orogenese allerdings stets fragwürdiger. Die Alpengeologen insbesondere verwiesen auf die paläogeographische Konsequenz der einseitigen tektonischen Verfrachtung (Suess, 1875), der Gleitdecken (Bertrand, 1884;Schardt, 1893) und Schubdecken (Termier, 1903). Die neue Anschauung über mobile Orogentektonik fand ihren Niederschlag in Argands meisterhaftem Vortrag über den Bau Asiens am Internationalen Geologen Kongreß 1922 (Argand, 1924).Gleichzeitig mit der Zuspitzung der Diskussion über die Deckentheorie der Alpen, spielte sich auch in Nordamerika eine Kontroverse ab. Auch hier drehte sich die Frage um die Entstehung der Gebirge. Zwar ging es nicht um die üblichen Faltengebirge, sondern um den neuen Typ des Blockgebirges, der im Großen Becken der westlichen Vereinigten Staaten als Basin Ranges (Gilbert, 1876) bekannt wurde. Während die Alpengeologen tektonische Schübe von bisher ungeahnter Größe entdeckten und damit weit mehr Verkürzung der Kruste als die Lehrmeinung wahr haben wollte, hatten es die Erforscher des amerikanischen Westens noch schwieriger, da das Blockgebirge des Großen Beckens offensichtlich durch Ausweitung der Kruste entstanden war (Russell, 1884;Le Conte, 1889). So haben in der alten und der neuen Welt gerade diese, der Lehrmeinung abtrünnigen Ansichten, dem heutigen geotektonischen Denken zum Durchbrach verholfen.

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Résumé Bien que Hutton (1795) ait reconnu la dynamique endogène des phénomènes géologiques, leurs fondements physiques ne sont pas, quant à présent, encore clarifiés. L'opinion en voque au 19ème siècle était en faveur de la contraction thermique comme déterminante de la poussée tectonique. Les profils transversaux dans les chaînes plissées devinrent alors de représentation courante. Tel est la cas bien connu du «Double-pli» de Glaris dans les Alpes centrales (Heim, 1878). Mais des géologues des deux côtés de l'Atlantique observèrent bientôt des structures ne concordant pas avec le modèle de la contraction dans l'orogenèse. L'école mobiliste alpine établit les concepts de la polarité tectonique (Suess, 1875), celui des nappes (Bertrand, 1884), celui des grands charriages (Termier, 1903). La nouvelle conception sur le tectogenèse atteignit son apogée avec la conférence magistrale d'Argand sur la Structure de l'Asie au Congrès géologique international de 1922. (Argand, 1924). — Pendant que la théorie des nappes était en pleine discussion en Europe, une autre controverse sur l'orogenèse se développait dans l'Ouest américain: les problèmes des «Basin Ranges» (Gilbert, 1876). De même que les premiers partisans du rétrécissement à grande échelle de l'écorce terrestre durent s'écarter des points de vue établis, leurs contemporains des Etats-Unis découvrirent paradoxalement une autre cause du soulèvement des chaînes de montagnes: l'extension de l'écorce terrestre (Russel, 1884;Le Conte, 1889).

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The Cordillera Blanca Batholith: A study of granite intrusion and the relation of crustal thickening to peraluminosity

The Cordillera Blanca Batholith, Peru is emplaced axially over the thickened crustal keel of the Andes (>60 km). It is made up of tonalite and leucogranodiorite, the latter having an »S« type character. It is the terminal component in continental growth with ages as young as 3 Ma. However, the crustal character of the leucogranodiorite relates to fluid interaction with the surrounding aluminous graphitic basinal rocks and not to any deep seated source material. Chemistry, isotopes and geological evidence suggest the source is enriched mantle akin to that seen further south in Chile, and variations in composition e.g. increases in Sr, Ce_N/Yb_N and Ta/Hf ratios, of granitoids, from the trench into the continent relate to changes in this source.

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Zusammenfassung Der Cordillera-Blanca-Batholith liegt axial über der verdickten Andenkruste (> 60 km). Er besteht aus Tonaliten und Leukogranodioriten; letztere haben einen »S«-Typ-Charakter. Es ist das letzte Ereignis während der Entstehung der kontinentalen Kruste mit Altern von höchstens 3 Mio Jahren. Der krustale Charakter der Leukogranodiorite geht auf eine Fluidereaktion mit umgebenden alluminiumreichen Graphitschiefern zurück und hat kein tiefer gelegenes Ausgangsmaterial. Geochemie, Isotopengeochemie und der geologische Rahmen lassen erkennen, da\ die Quelle der Leukogranodiorite aus angereichertem Mantelmaterial besteht, das weiter südlich in Chile zu sehen ist. Bei wechselnder Zusammensetzung zeigt sich eine Zunahme der Sr, Ce_N/Yb_N und Ta/Hf-Verhältnisse.

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Résumé Le batholite de la Cordillère Blanche s'étend dans la partie axiale de la croûte épaissie des Andes (> 60 km). Il est constitué de tonalite et de leucogranodiorite; cette dernière présente un caractère de type S. Avec un âge de 3 Ma, il s'agit du composant le plus récent de la croissance continentale. Cependant, le caractère crustal de la leucogranodiorite indique une réaction par fluides avec les schistes alumineux et graphiteux encaissants et non avec des matérieux profonds. Les observations chimiques, isotopiques et géologiques montrent que la source les leucogranodiorites est un manteau enrichi, tel qu'on peut en voir plus au sud au Chili. Les modifications de composition consistent, notamment, en un accroissement de Sr et des rapports Ce_N/Yb_N et Ta/Hf.

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On the relationship of lamprophyres to hydrothermal ore veins in the Bohemian-Moravian Heights (Czechoslovakia)

In the territory of the Bohemian-Moravian Heights, numerous lamprophyre, lamproid and basic dikes, as well as younger hydrothermal ore veins of different types occur. The dike rocks display rather high BaO-contents. Some lamprophyres from the area with barite-bearing ore veins even contain sparse barite, mostly as amygdules and in pseudomorphs after pyroxene phenocrysts. Barite evidently originated from the components contained in the magma; it does not represent a separate and independent hydrothermal supply, from which the ore veins, including the barite ones, would have crystallized. The dike rocks under consideration giade through transitional members into diabases. This fact, along with evidence concerning chemical composition of the rock, suggests that these dikes represent tholeiitic magmas contaminated at depth, mainly by a support of alkalies and volatile constituents and perhaps also barium. In the area under consideration, some genetic relations between dikes and ore veins may exist, but they are very vague only.

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Zusammenfassung In der Böhmisch-Mährischen. Höhe kommen zahlreiche lamprophyrische, lamproide und basische Gänge sowie jüngere hydrothermale Erzgänge verschiedener Typen vor. Die Ganggesteine weisen erhöhte Bariumgehalte auf. Einige Lamprophyre aus dem Verbreitungsgebiet der barytführenden Erzgänge enthalten sogar spärlichen Baryt, meist in Mandeln und in Pseudomorphosen nach den Pyroxeneinsprenglingen. Der Baryt entstand in diesen Ganggesteinen offensichtlich aus den im Magma enthaltenen Komponenten und stellt keine nachträgliche, etwa mit der Mineralisierung der Erzgänge zeitlich zusammenfallende Zufuhr dar. Die Ganggesteine der Böhmisch-Mährischen Höhe gehen, wenn auch nur selten, in Diabase über. Diese Tatsache, gemeinsam mit einigen chemischen Merkmalen der Gänge, läßt vermuten, daß die betrachteten Ganggesteine tholeiitische Magmen darstellen, die in der Tiefe hauptsächlich durch Alkalien und leichtflüchtige Bestandteile und vielleicht auch durch Barium bereichert wurden. In der Böhmisch-Mährischen Höhe besteht vielleicht ein genetischer Zusammenhang zwischen den Ganggesteinen und den Erzgängen, der aber nur sehr lose ist.

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Résumé Dans les Hauteurs tchéco-moraves il existe de nombreux filons lamprophyriques, lamproides et basiques ainsi que des filons de minerai hydrothermaux de différents types. Les roches de filon présentent une teneur élevée en baryum. Quelques lamprophyres de l'aire de distribution des filons de minerai barytiques contiennent mÊme de la baryte en petites quantités, généralement en géodes et pseudomorphoses des phéocristaux de pyroxène. La baryte s'est formée dans ces roches de filon à partir d'éléments contenus dans le magma et ne représente pas un apport plus tardif, coincidant par exemple avec la minéralisation des filons hydrothermaux. Les roches de filon des Hauteurs tchéco-moraves passent, bien que rarement, à des diabases. Ce fait, en plus de certains caractères chimiques des filons, permet de penser que les roches de filon étudiées représentent des magmas tholeiitiques qui ont été enrichis en profondeur avant tout en alcalis et composants volatils, et peut-Être aussi en baryum. Il existe peut-Être dans les Hauteurs tchécomoraves des relations d'origine, toutefois très vagues, entre les roches de filon et les filons de minerai.

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