Microclimate effects of crop residues on biological processes

Summary Residues from crops left on the soil surface have an impact on the microclimate, primarily temperature, within the soil and the atmosphere; but, the impact on the biological system is largely unknown. Residue is assumed to have a positive impact on the biological system in the soil and a negative impact on crop growth. This report investigates the effect of standing residue on the microclimate surrounding a cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) crop in a semi-arid environment and the effect of flat residue on the seasonal soil temperature and soil water regimes in a humid climate with a corn (Zea mays L.) and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production system. A study was conducted during 1987 and 1988 in a semi-arid climate at Lubbock, Texas using standing wheat stubble to shelter cotton from wind. In this study soil water, microclimatic variables, and plant growth were measured within standing stubble and bare soil during the early vegetative growth period. Air temperatures were warmer at night within the standing residue and the air more humid throughout the day. This led to a reduction in the soil water evaporation rate and an increase in the water use efficiency of the cotton plant within the stubble. Studies on corn residue with continuous corn and corn-soybean rotations with no-till, chiselplow, and moldboard plow tillage practices in central Iowa showed that the average soil temperatures in the upper soil profile were not affected by the presence of flat residue after tillage. Diurnal temperature ranges were most affected by the residue throughout the year. The largest effect of the residue on soil temperature was in the fall after harvest when no-till fields cooled more slowly than tilled fields. In the spring, surface residue decreased the soil water evaporation rate and increased the soil water storage within the soil profile covered with residue. In years with below normal rainfall, the additional stored soil water due to the surface residue was used by the plant to maintain transpiration rates at optimal levels during the early vegetative growth period. The biological implications of crop residue on the soil surface can be more positive than negative and increasing our understanding of the physical environment and biological system interactions will lead to improved resource management.Contribution from the United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service.With 6 Figures     

A Field Experiment on Dust Emission by Wind Erosion in the Taklimakan Desert

Dust emission by wind erosion in surface is a serious problem in many arid regions around the world,and it is harmful to the ecological environment,human health,and social economy.To monitor the characteristics of saltation activity and to calculate the threshold wind velocity and sediment discharge under field conditions have significance on the research of dust emission by wind erosion.Therefore,a field experiment was conducted over the flat sand in the hinterland of the Taklimakan Desert.One sampling system was installed on the flat sand surface at Tazhong,consisting of a meteorological tower with a height of 2 m,a piezoelectric saltation sensor(Sensit),and a Big Spring Number Eight(BSNE) sampler station.Occurrence of saltation activity was recorded every second using the Sensit.Each BSNE station consisted of five BSNE samplers with the lowest sampler at 0.05 m and the highest sampler at 1.0 m above the soil surface.Sediment was collected from the samplers every 24 h.It is found that saltation activity was detected for only 21.5% of the hours measured,and the longest period of saltation activity occurring continuously was not longer than 5 min under the field conditions.The threshold wind velocity was variable,its minimum value was 4.9 m s 1,the maximum value was 9.2 m s 1,and the average value was 7.0 m s 1.The threshold wind velocity presented a positive linear increase during the measurement period.The observation site had a sediment discharge of 82.1 kg m 1 over a period of 24 h.Based on hourly saltation counts,hourly sediment discharge was estimated.Overall,there was no obvious linear or other functional relationship between the hourly sediment discharge and wind velocity.The results show that the changes of sediment discharge do not quite depend on wind velocity.     

Spatio-Temporal Surface Shear-Stress Variability in Live Plant Canopies and Cube Arrays

This study presents spatiotemporally-resolved measurements of surface shear-stress τ _s in live plant canopies and rigid wooden cube arrays to identify the sheltering capability against sediment erosion of these different roughness elements. Live plants have highly irregular structures that can be extremely flexible and porous resulting in considerable changes to the drag and flow regimes relative to rigid imitations mainly used in other wind-tunnel studies. Mean velocity and kinematic Reynolds stress profiles show that well-developed natural boundary layers were generated above the 8 m long wind-tunnel test section covered with the roughness elements at four different roughness densities (λ = 0, 0.017, 0.08, 0.18). Speed-up around the cubes caused higher peak surface shear stress than in experiments with plants at all roughness densities, demonstrating the more effective sheltering ability of the plants. The sheltered areas in the lee of the plants are significantly narrower with higher surface shear stress than those found in the lee of the cubes, and are dependent on the wind speed due to the plants ability to streamline with the flow. This streamlining behaviour results in a decreasing sheltering effect at increasing wind speeds and in lower net turbulence production than in experiments with cubes. Turbulence intensity distributions suggest a suppression of horseshoe vortices in the plant case. Comparison of the surface shear-stress measurements with sediment erosion patterns shows that the fraction of time a threshold skin friction velocity is exceeded can be used to assess erosion of, and deposition on, that surface.     

Wind erosion control

Wind erosion is a serious problem in many parts of the world. It physically removes from the field the most fertile portion of the soil, pollutes the air, fills road ditches, reduces seedling survival and growth, lowers the marketability of many vegetable crops, and creates new desert landforms and landscapes. It is generally worse in arid and semi-arid than in subhumid climates.A wind erosion equation was developed as a result of many investigations on the factors influencing wind erosion. It is a useful guide to the principles of wind erosion control. The functional relationship is expressed as E = % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9% vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x% fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaeyOKbykaaa!37B2!\[f\](I,K,C,L,V), where E is potential average annual soil loss per unit area, I is a soil erodibility index, K is a soil ridge roughness factor, C is a climatic factor, L is the unsheltered median travel distance of wind across a field, and V is an equivalent quantity of vegetative cover.Principles suggested by the wind erosion equation for controlling wind include: stabilizing erodible surface with various materials; producing a rough, cloddy surface; reducing field width or the distance wind travels in crossing an unprotected field with barriers and strip crops; and establishing and maintaining sufficient vegetative cover. This last item is sometimes referred to as the cardinal rule for controlling wind erosion.     

Review of the Field Measurements and Parameterization for Dust Emission During Sand-Dust Events

Dust emission generated by wind erosion is a basic process before the transport and deposition of dust particles. Parameterization of dust emission flux is important for accurate simulation and prediction of dust events. Field observation and numerical simulation are two approaches to understand the complex process of dust emission. Great progress has been made on the characteristics and mechanism of dust emission during dust storm events. This review introduces the major factors influencing dust emission and summarizes the calculation methods of several key parameters of dust emission, including the threshold friction velocity u.t, threshold wind speed Ut, streamwise saltation flux Q, and （vertical） dust emission flux F, from perspectives of both observation and parameterization. The paper also discusses the improvement, application, and validation of different dust emission schemes in dust models. Existing problems and future research directions are elaborated as well.     

中性层结下局地平缓地形起沙的次网格参数化研究

局地地形起沙对沙尘模式的预报精度具有重要影响。基于狭管与下滑效应以及气流过山的已有研究成果,研究了中性层结与局地平缓地形条件下风速在这两种效应下次网格参数化问题,然后基于平坦地形的起沙公式、引入局地地形的摩擦速度,得到了相应的次网格起沙公式,最后对狭管效应、下滑效应以及两效应的叠加进行了理想试验。试验表明:(1)对于狭管效应的次网格参数化问题,风从狭管的阔口进(出)、窄口出(进)时,风速、跃移通量与起沙量均增大(减小);(2)下滑效应致使风速、跃移通量与起沙量均增大,且山脚增幅大于山坡;(3)对于两种效应的叠加,当气流从狭管的阔口进、窄口出时,风速、跃移通量和起沙量同时增大,山脚风速大于山坡,大粒径沙粒跃移通量增幅大于小粒径沙粒。反之,窄口进、阔口出时,出入口宽度之比存在一临界值,大于此临界值,风速减小;反之增大。而且,除了在山脚的小粒径沙粒在一定风速条件下跃移通量会增大外,其余情况均减少。最后,提出了本参数化方法与数值模式耦合的分算法与整算法。     

风蚀起沙的影响因子及其变化特征

以敦煌地区的戈壁和绿洲为例,对地表土壤风蚀起沙的临界摩擦速度及其变化特征和风蚀起沙过程中地表土壤的粒子尺度分布及其对垂直尘粒通量的影响进行了分析研究。结果表明,地表土壤风蚀起沙的临界摩擦速度随土壤水分含量和植被覆盖度的增大而增大,随粒子尺度的变化是先减小后增大,在中间某一尺度处有一最小值;土壤的人工利用和管理对临界摩擦速度也有着相当大的影响,风蚀起沙过程中,地表土壤的粒子尺度分布随时间发生变化,瞬时的粒子尺度分布不同于平均的粒子尺度分布,利用前者计算得到的垂直尘粒通量对摩擦速度的变化更敏感,利用后者计算得到的垂直尘粒通量偏大。     

塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地一次风蚀起沙观测试验

风蚀起沙对生态环境、人类健康及社会经济等具有很大的负面效应。利用美国Sensit公司生产的H11-LIN型风蚀传感器及贴地层风速梯度探测仪,对塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地塔中地区一次风蚀起沙过程进行了监测。结果表明：（1）风蚀起沙与微气象是一个互相影响互相制约的变化过程;（2）在此次观测试验过程中,我们观测到的最小起沙风速为6.0 m/s左右,同时发现起沙风速是一个变化的值,随着时间的延续呈现逐步增大的趋势,最小的起沙风速出现在风蚀开始发生的时候;（3）近地表风速廓线受沙粒运动影响明显,随着起沙量的增加,风速随高度变化的幅度增大,此时的风速廓线已不再遵循对数分布规律;（4）利用风蚀传感器测得塔中地区沙粒的临界起动摩擦速度为0.25 m/s,该值与经验公式估算的0.24 m/s非常接近,表明风蚀传感器在塔中地区具有较好的适用性;夏季塔中地区地表土壤湿度对风蚀起沙的阻碍作用可以忽略不计。 ?     

一个改进的沙尘天气数值预测系统及其模拟试验

在中尺度气象模式最新版本MM5V3.7的基础上,通过与一个起沙模式的耦合,建立了一个新的中国科学院大气物理研究所(IAP/CAS)沙尘天气数值预测系统(IAPS 2.0).该系统与IAP原有的沙尘天气数值预测系统(IAPS 1.0)最主要的差异在于气象模式中陆面过程模式的改进.利用改进前后两个版本的预测系统对2002年4月发生在我国北方地区的两次较强沙尘(暴)过程进行了数值模拟,并与观测实况进行了比较,结果表明改进的系统对沙尘天气的预测能力比改进前的版本有显著的改进,这主要是由于新的陆面模式改善了地表土壤湿度的模拟,进而改进了决定起沙与否的关键因子临界摩擦速度的模拟,从而提高了预测系统对起沙范围和强度的模拟效果.总的说来,采用了更为先进的Noah陆面模式的IAP沙尘(暴)天气数值预测系统对中国北方春季沙尘(暴)天气过程具有更好的模拟能力.     

沙尘天气过程起沙特征的观测试验和参数化研究进展

沙尘天气过程研究中,起沙过程是沙尘传输和沉降的基础,沙尘模式中的起沙参数化方案决定了能否准确模拟和预报沙尘天气。试验观测和数值模拟是研究起沙过程的重要途径。基于风蚀起沙的物理机制,总结了起沙机制和起沙特征的研究成果,介绍了风蚀起沙的主要影响因子,回顾了起沙关键参数（临界起沙摩擦速度（u*t ）或临界起沙风速（Ut ）、水平跃移沙尘通量（Q）和起沙通量（F））的试验观测及其沙尘模式应用中的参数化方案,并讨论了不同起沙参数化方案的应用与校验。同时,针对目前研究中存在的问题和今后可能的研究方向提出建议。     

DPM模型在塔克拉玛干沙漠地区的适用性研究

局限于仅有观测数据的情况下,利用模拟手段研究土壤风蚀引起的粉尘释放是非常必要的,有助于评估区域土壤风蚀及大气环境质量和气候效应。本文通过分析塔克拉玛干沙漠观测站不同高度层风速及计算平均摩阻风速,利用DPM模型计算粉尘释放通量,综合分析了摩阻风速与粉尘释放通量的相互关系。结果表明：1）不同观测日不同高度层的风速变化各不相同,2m高度层风速的变化范围是0.05～7.73 m·s-1,4m高度层风速的变化范围是0.09～7.19 m·s-1,10m高度层风速的变化范围是0.5～8.09 m·s-1。2）4月1日～4月30日各个观测日24小时内平均摩阻风速分别为0.423 m·s-1、0.344 m·s-1、0.271 m·s-1、0.343 m·s-1、0.161 m·s-1、0.315 m·s-1,其变化范围为0.16～0.42 m·s-1。3）DPM模型研究发现实测跃移通量约为模拟值的122%,模拟值与实测值相关性较好,R2为0.91。上述研究结果对定量评估区域乃至全疆的土壤风蚀对粉尘释放通量的影响具有重要意义。     

DPM模型在塔克拉玛干沙漠地区的适用性研究

局限于仅有观测数据的情况下,利用模拟手段研究土壤风蚀引起的粉尘释放是非常必要的,有助于评估区域土壤风蚀及大气环境质量和气候效应。本文通过分析塔克拉玛干沙漠观测站不同高度层风速及计算平均摩阻风速,利用DPM模型计算粉尘释放通量,综合分析了摩阻风速与粉尘释放通量的相互关系。结果表明：1）不同观测日不同高度层的风速变化各不相同,2m高度层风速的变化范围是0.05～7.73 m·s-1,4m高度层风速的变化范围是0.09～7.19 m·s-1,10m高度层风速的变化范围是0.5～8.09 m·s-1。2）4月1日～4月30日各个观测日24小时内平均摩阻风速分别为0.423 m·s-1、0.344 m·s-1、0.271 m·s-1、0.343 m·s-1、0.161 m·s-1、0.315 m·s-1,其变化范围为0.16～0.42 m·s-1。3）DPM模型研究发现实测跃移通量约为模拟值的122%,模拟值与实测值相关性较好,R2为0.91。上述研究结果对定量评估区域乃至全疆的土壤风蚀对粉尘释放通量的影响具有重要意义。     

内蒙古科尔沁沙地临界起沙阈值的范围确定

临界起沙阈值可表征地表土壤的可蚀性,是风蚀起沙研究中非常重要的物理量之一。基于微气象学方法,将沙尘浓度和垂直沙尘通量均开始增加且至少持续0.5 h所对应的摩擦速度(或风速)确定为临界起沙摩擦速度u_*t(或临界起沙风速U_t)。利用内蒙古科尔沁沙地地区2010-2013年春季大气环境综合观测资料,分析了不同沙尘天气过程(扬沙、沙尘暴和强沙尘暴)起沙阶段沙尘浓度和垂直沙尘通量随摩擦速度的演变特征,精细确定了该地区临界起沙摩擦速度(u_*t)和临界起沙风速(U_t)的范围分别为0.45±0.20和6.5±3.0 m/s,同时讨论了不同起沙判据对确定临界起沙阈值产生的影响。相比而言,采用的起沙判据尽可能地排除了沙尘输送和沉降过程的影响,适用于不同的沙尘天气类型,使沙尘粒子进入大气的起沙结果更趋于合理,其结果可为建立统一、合理的起沙判据提供参考。     

Turbulent dissipation of the cold-air pool in a basin:comparison of observed and simulated development

Summary Turbulent erosion of the cold air pool (CAP) in a basin was investigated with a goal of evaluating Petkovšek’s (1985, 1992) hypothesis that wind velocity above a cold air pool must increase with time in order to destroy a cold air pool by the turbulent erosion mechanism. Measured wind data at surface stations above the CAP in the Ljubljana basin (in central Slovenia) show an increasing wind velocity with time, while coincident sodar data show the simultaneous time evolution of a vertical wind profile inside the basin, ending with complete erosion of the CAP. Numerical modelling with the MM5 non-hydrostatic model (Dudhia 1993, with Janjić’s 1990 and 1994 turbulent package of Mellor-Yamada level 2.5) in an idealized basin proved that when the wind exceeds a certain threshold velocity, the CAP starts to erode. The process stops, however, if the wind speed does not increase further. If the wind velocity continues to increase, the simulation leads to complete erosion of the CAP. For comparison with a real basin, erosion was also simulated in more complicated relief (one roughly representing the Ljubljana basin). The general results of the simulation are basically similar to the ones in the idealized basin. Received June 21, 2001 Revised November 13, 2001     

塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地风蚀起沙特征观测研究

利用塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地塔中气象站2009-2018年的地面观测资料,细致解析塔中地区的风蚀起沙特征,所得结论如下：(1) 临界起沙风速表现出明显的季节变化特征,夏季＞春季＞秋季＞冬季, 塔中地区的临界起沙风速介于4.47-4.92 m/s,日最大值出现09:00-10:00时。(2) 春夏季是沙尘的多发季节。春、夏季,沙尘水平通量的平均值分别为2638.9 kg/m和3298.9 kg/m,起沙持续时间的平均值分别为291.5 h和336.7 h。(3) 风蚀起沙事件更容易发生在白天, 沙尘水平通的最大值出现在10:00-11:00,起沙持续时间的最大值出现在10:00-13:00。(4)风蚀起沙事件在春季主要集中在偏东方向,在夏季主要集中在偏北方向上。     

Effects of Topographical Slope Angle and Atmospheric Stratification on Surface-Layer Turbulence

The effect of topographical slope angle and atmospheric stratification on turbulence intensities in the unstably stratified surface layer have been parameterized using observations obtained from a three-dimensional sonic anemometer installed at 8 m height above the ground at the Seoul National University (SNU) campus site in Korea for the years 1999–2001. Winds obtained from the sonic anemometer are analyzed according to the mean wind direction, since the topographical slope angle changes significantly along the azimuthal direction. The effects of the topographical slope angle and atmospheric stratification on surface-layer turbulence intensity are examined with these data. It is found that both the friction velocity and the variance for each component of wind normalized by the mean wind speed decrease with increase of the topographical slope angle, having a maximum decreasing rate at very unstable stratification. The decreasing rate of the normalized friction velocity (u _* /U) is found to be much larger than that of the turbulence intensity of each wind component due to the reduction of wind shear with increase in slope angle under unstable stratification. The decreasing rate of the w component of turbulence intensity (σ _w /U) is the smallest over the downslope surface whereas that of the u component (σ _u /U) has a minimum over the upslope surface. Consequently, σ _w /u _* has a maximum increasing rate with increase in slope angle for the downslope wind, whereas σ _u /u _* has its maximum for the upslope wind. The sloping terrain is found to reduce both the friction velocity and turbulence intensity compared with those on a flat surface. However, the reduction of the friction velocity over the sloping terrain is larger than that of the turbulence intensity, thereby enhancing the turbulence intensity normalized by the friction velocity over sloping terrain compared with that over a flat surface.     

有限区域风速场求解流函数和速度势场的有效方案

流函数和速度势是表示风场的一种变量, 在数值天气预报模式和分析、同化方案中经常使用, 通常可以用风速分量场求解Poisson方程得到。对于有限区域系统, 往往采用差分方法, 但由于存在边界问题, 用计算所得到的流函数和速度势场重建风速场, 在边界附近经常出现明显的偏差。基于差分方法、利用有限区域风速场求解流函数和速度势场的基本方法和特点的分析, 在Arakawa A网格分布的有限区域, 设计了一种用差分方法求解流函数和速度势场的有效方案。在该有效方案中, 通过将有限区域向外扩展二圈, 风速场线性外推, 改进计算边界风速值和边界定解条件的效果; 尽可能使用协调、一致的差分格式, 提高求解精度; 最后利用一种增量订正迭代方法, 迭代2~3次就可以获得令人满意的结果。实例试验的对比、检验显示, 用该方案计算求得的流函数和速度势场重建风速场, 具有非常高的精度。     

山地风电场开发过程中水土流失相关问题研究进展

风力发电在提供清洁能源的同时亦带来了一定程度的水土流失和生态环境破坏。特别是山地风电场,由于其所在的山区土壤抗蚀性低,且植被破坏后恢复难度大,在开发过程中引起的水土流失问题尤为突出。回顾了山区风电场水土流失特点、影响风电场水土流失关键因子等方面的相关研究成果,并对其进行了总结。山区风电场水土流失具有地域不完整性及扰动多样性的特点,道路施工区、风电机组建设区是水土流失的重点区域;水土流失呈现时空分布不均性特点,水土流失时段主要集中在施工期,且流失剧烈阶段主要发生在每年的降雨集中期;降雨是影响风电场水土流失的关键因子,滑坡稳定性系数在降水期间急剧下降,降水入渗作用促进了边坡变形破坏向不利的一面发展,容易引起水土流失及边坡不稳;降雨侵蚀力指标与降雨量及雨强有关,按照获取气象资料的不同,目前主要采用月降雨量及日降雨量来分别估算降雨侵蚀力;在进行山区风电场水土流失强度预测时,将整个预测区域划分为4~6个单元,确定各预测单元工程扰动前、施工期、扰动后的土壤侵蚀模数,采用类比法结合数学模型法预测造成的水土流失量。     

台风登陆过程中南海近海阵风因子特征

阵风预报对于输电铁塔线路设计、风力发电、建筑和桥梁设计以及航空气象安全等至关重要。目前,基于不同观测资料和计算方法,学者们给出了不同的阵风或阵风因子参数化公式,没有公认的一致结果。利用中国气象局南海(博贺)海洋气象科学试验基地离岸4.5 km和6.5 km的两个海洋气象观测塔在2008—2018年七个台风期间观测的10 Hz高频湍流脉动数据,分析了观测高度、平均时间、下垫面特征和大气稳定度对阵风因子计算结果的影响,研究了近海海上台风过程中阵风因子与平均风速和湍流特征参数的关系。不同于以往研究给出阵风因子是常数,给出了阵风因子随10 m风速变化的计算公式,为阵风预报及相关防灾减灾提供参考依据。