Crop residue effects on surface radiation and energy balance — review

Summary Crop residues alter the surface properties of soils. Both shortwave albedo and longwave emissivity are affected. These are linked to an effect of residue on surface evaporation and water content. Water content influences soil physical properties and surface energy partitioning. In summary, crop residue acts to soil as clothing acts to skin. Compared to bare soil, crop residues can reduce extremes of heat and mass fluxes at the soil surface. Managing crop residues can result in more favorable agronomic soil conditions. This paper reviews research results of the quantity, quality, architecture, and surface distribution of crop residues on soil surface radiation and energy balances, soil water content, and soil temperature.With 6 Figures     

Evaluation of wind erosion in the Tarim Basin based on parameter localization

Theoretical and Applied Climatology - Air density strongly constrains the characteristics of an airflow and the resulting flow of sand and therefore, it should not be neglected in sand transport...     

The logarithmic profile in wind erosion: An algebraic solution

This paper presents a simple algebraic approach to the interpretation of wind erosion data that allows for density variation close to the surface due to the presence of large amounts of saltating material. The effect explains nonlinearities in the logarithmic velocity profile near the surface and extends the profile into the saltating layer.     

Stability and wind shear effects on meso-scale cellular convection

A three-dimensional numerical model has been used to assess the effects of vertical stability and wind shear on the nature and form of meso-scale cellular convection (MCC). The model was shown to be capable of simulating a real occasion of MCC before it was used in idealised cases. These cases revealed different regimes in MCC: open cells, longitudinal bands and closed cells/transverse bands. Open cells were favoured by the existence of instability in the surface layer and a lack of wind shear in the Ekman layer. Longitudinal bands were favoured by similar conditions in the surface layer plus wind shear in the Ekman layer. A near-neutral surface layer favoured the occurrence of closed cells/transverse bands. The depth of convection in the longitudinal bands was a function of the stability in both the surface and Ekman layers and of the wind shear in the Ekman layer. The regimes are related to the instability and shear through bulk Richardson numbers in the surface and Ekman layers.     

雷暴型风切变及其对飞机飞行影响的初步探讨

本文利用北京320米气象观测塔的实测资料和715测雨雷达回波图片.对1980年8月31日晚影响北京地区的两次雷暴天气过程对塔层各要素和参量的影响情况进行了综合分析.结果表明,尽管两次雷暴天气过程的主体路径偏北,但塔层资料仍然明显地反映出雷暴冷性外流气流的存在.冷外流前沿离雷暴云体20公里左右.两次雷暴天气过程的外流气流中都出现了大于0.2秒的严重风切变.这足以使飞机纵向运动发生不稳定而危及安全.为此提出,应把飞机远离雷暴云主体20—30公里飞行作为一个重要的安全措施,不要侥幸地去抢飞这一危险空域.     

The prediction of dust erosion by wind: An interactive model

We have devised a partial differential equation for the prediction of dust concentration in a thin layer near the ground. In this equation, erosion (detachment), transport, deposition and source are parameterised in terms of known quantities. The interaction between a wind prediction model in the boundary layer and this equation affects the evolution of the dust concentration at the top of the surface layer. Numerical integrations are carried out for various values of source strength, ambient wind and particle size. Comparison with available data shows that the results appear very reasonable and that the model should be subjected to further development and testing.Notation (x, y, z, t) space co-ordinates and time (cm,t) - u, v components of horizontal wind speed (cm s^–1) - u _g, v_g components of the geostrophic wind (cm s^–1) - V=(u²+v²)^1/2 (cm s^–1) - (û v)= 1/(h – k) _k ^h(u, v)dz(cm s^–1) - V _* friction velocity (cm s^–1) - z ₀ roughness length (cm) - k ₁ von Karman constant =0.4 - V _d deposition velocity (cm s^–1) - V _g gravitational settling velocity (cm s^–1) - h height of inversion (cm) - k height of surface layer (cm) - potential temperature (°K) - _gr potential temperature at ground (°K) - _K potential temperature at top of surface layer (°K) - P pressure (mb) - P ₀ sfc pressure (mb) - C _p/C_v - (t)= /z lapse rate of potential temperature (°K cm^–1) - A(z) variation of wind with height in transition layer - B(z) variation of wind with height in transition layer - Cd drag coefficient - C _HO transfer coefficient for sensible heat - C dust concentration (g m^–3) - C _K dust concentration at top of surface layer (g m^–3) - D(z) variation with height of dust concentration - u, v, w turbulent fluctuations of the three velocity components (cm s^–1) - A ₁ constant coefficient of proportionality for heat flux =0.2 - Ri Richardson number - g gravitational acceleration =980 cm s^–2 - Re Reynolds number = - D _s thickness of laminar sub-layer (cm) - v molecular kinematic viscosity of air - coefficient of proportionality in source term - dummy variable - t time step (sec) - n time index in numerical equations On sabbatical leave at University of Aberdeen, Department of Engineering, September 1989–February 1990.     

两次台风过程近地层湍流度和阵风因子分析

利用2005年台风麦莎和卡努期间青岛海岸实测三维风观测资料,挑选6个10 min平均风速≥8 m/s的强风时段,使用矢量分析方法研究台风影响华东地区时近地层的平均风速风向变化、湍流度和阵风因子变化等湍流特性,结果表明台风影响期间,近地层湍流脉动风速不稳定,水平方向、垂直方向风速风向快速变化;虽然台风麦莎、卡努入海地点不同,不同强风时段近地层湍流度差异也较大,但湍流强度都表现为Iu(横向)＞Iv(纵向)＞Iw(垂直向).两次台风影响过程不同强风时段近地层阵风因子的变化与湍流度的变化是一致的,在风速增大风向转变的时段,湍流度和阵风因子明显增大.     

Use of dust storm observations on satellite images to identify areas vulnerable to severe wind erosion

Blowing dust is symptomatic of severe wind erosion and deterioration of soils in areas undergoing dessication and/or devegetation. Dust plumes on satellite images can commonly be traced to sources in marginally arable semiarid areas where protective lag gravels or vegetation have been removed and soils are dry, as demonstrated for the Portales Valley, New Mexico. Images from Landsat and manned orbiters such as Skylab and the Space Shuttle are useful for illustrating the regional relations of airborne dust plumes to source areas. Geostationary satellites such as GOES are useful in tracking the time-histories of episodic dust storms. These events sometimes go unrecognized by weather observers and are the precursors of long-term land degradation trends. In areas where soil maps and meteorological data are inadequate, satellite images provide a means for identifying problem areas where measures are needed to control or mitigate wind erosion.     

Corona processes and lightning attachment: The effect of wind during thunderstorms

A simple model of a glow corona occurring near the tip of a grounded electrode in a thundercloud electric field that can be enhanced by an approaching downward leader has been studied analytically and numerically with regard to the effect of wind. We obtained an approximate expression for corona current taking into account the (i) removal of space charge from the coronating point due to ion drift and wind and (ii) image of the charge in the ground. As the wind velocity decreases to zero, the expression tends to that obtained previously in the absence of wind. It was shown analytically and numerically that, in a thundercloud electric field, even moderate wind velocities lead to hundreds of percent increase in the corona current. This current decreases with time only slightly in a steady thundercloud electric field, as opposed to the current behavior in the absence of wind. However, even strong wind is not sufficient to affect the properties of a corona intensified in the electric field of an approaching downward leader. The occurrence of wind does not affect the conditions for initiation of an upward connecting leader from grounded objects and consequently the efficiency of lightning rods of ordinary height.     

A comparative study of some mathematical models of the mean wind structure and aerodynamic drag of plant canopies

A semi-analytical method for describing the mean wind profile and shear stress within plant canopies and for estimating the roughness length and the displacement height is presented. This method incorporates density and vertical structure of the canopy and includes simple parameterizations of the roughness sublayer and shelter factor. Some of the wind profiles examined are consistent with first-order closure techniques while others are consistent with second-order closure techniques. Some profiles show a shearless region near the base of the canopy; however, none displays a secondary maximum there. Comparing several different analytical expressions for the canopy wind profile against observations suggests that one particular type of profile (an Airy function which is associated with the triangular foliage surface area density distribution) is superior to the others. Because of the numerical simplicity of the methods outlined, it is suggested that they may be profitably used in large-scale models of plant-atmosphere exchanges.     

Microclimate effects of crop residues on biological processes

Summary Residues from crops left on the soil surface have an impact on the microclimate, primarily temperature, within the soil and the atmosphere; but, the impact on the biological system is largely unknown. Residue is assumed to have a positive impact on the biological system in the soil and a negative impact on crop growth. This report investigates the effect of standing residue on the microclimate surrounding a cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) crop in a semi-arid environment and the effect of flat residue on the seasonal soil temperature and soil water regimes in a humid climate with a corn (Zea mays L.) and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production system. A study was conducted during 1987 and 1988 in a semi-arid climate at Lubbock, Texas using standing wheat stubble to shelter cotton from wind. In this study soil water, microclimatic variables, and plant growth were measured within standing stubble and bare soil during the early vegetative growth period. Air temperatures were warmer at night within the standing residue and the air more humid throughout the day. This led to a reduction in the soil water evaporation rate and an increase in the water use efficiency of the cotton plant within the stubble. Studies on corn residue with continuous corn and corn-soybean rotations with no-till, chiselplow, and moldboard plow tillage practices in central Iowa showed that the average soil temperatures in the upper soil profile were not affected by the presence of flat residue after tillage. Diurnal temperature ranges were most affected by the residue throughout the year. The largest effect of the residue on soil temperature was in the fall after harvest when no-till fields cooled more slowly than tilled fields. In the spring, surface residue decreased the soil water evaporation rate and increased the soil water storage within the soil profile covered with residue. In years with below normal rainfall, the additional stored soil water due to the surface residue was used by the plant to maintain transpiration rates at optimal levels during the early vegetative growth period. The biological implications of crop residue on the soil surface can be more positive than negative and increasing our understanding of the physical environment and biological system interactions will lead to improved resource management.Contribution from the United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service.With 6 Figures     

A numerical investigation of wind speed effects on lake-effect storms

Observations of lake-effect storms that occur over the Great Lakes region during late autumn and winter indicate a high sensitivity to ambient wind speed and direction. In this paper, a two-dimensional version of the Penn State University/National Center for Atmospheric Research (PSU/NCAR) model is used to investigate the wind speed effects on lake-effect snowstorms that occur over the Great Lakes region.Theoretical initial conditions for stability, relative humidity, wind velocity, and lake/land temperature distribution are specified. Nine different experiments are performed using wind speeds ofU=0, 2, 4,..., 16 m s^–1. The perturbation wind, temperature, and moisture fields for each experiment after 36 h of simulation are compared.It is determined that moderate (4–6 m s^–1) wind speeds result in maximum precipitation (snowfall) on the lee shore of the model lake. Weak wind speeds (0U<4 m s^–1) yield significantly higher snowfall amounts over the lake along with a spatially concentrated and intense response. Strong wind speeds (6<U16 m s^–1), yield very little, if any, significant snowfall, although significant increases in cloudiness, temperature, and perturbation wind speed occur hundreds of kilometers downwind from the lake.     

几种起沙方案对东亚风蚀起沙模拟的比较

针对源区起沙的不确定性,整理并选取了国际上最具代表性的几种起沙方案,结合中尺度气象模式MM5V3．7输出的高分辨率气象资料,将其应用于东亚地区一次强沙尘暴天气过程的源区起沙模拟研究,利用地面观测实况和卫星监测图像资料,比较了它们对东亚起沙源的模拟效果和差异。结果表明,两种起沙方案的模拟效果较好且性能稳定。     

昌图风力发电项目主要环境影响分析

通过对昌图风力发电场工程项目的环境影响分析,得出风电类项目对环境的影响主要表现在噪声、阴影和生态等方面,并探讨了对各方面环境影响的分析预测方法及防治措施。     

利用激光闪烁测风的设想

根据最优化规划理论,提出利用激光在湍流大气中的闪烁效应遥感大气折射率结构常数及风速分布的一种设想。进行了平面波传播反演大气参数的数值试验;讨论了利用球面波传播遥感大气参数分布的可能性。     

气候变化对河北坝上地区草地土壤风蚀扬尘季节和年排放速率的影响

以全球气候模式NorESM1-M产生的RCP2.6、RCP4.5、RCP6.0、RCP8.5气候变化情景数据和原环保部推荐的土壤风蚀扬尘计算方法,模拟分析了未来气候变化对河北坝上砂粘壤土、粘壤土、壤粘土、砂壤土、砂粘土和风沙土草地土壤风蚀扬尘总可悬浮颗粒物(Total Suspended Particle,TSP)、PM10和PM2.5的季节及年排放速率的影响。结果表明:气候变化影响下坝上地区气温上升,年降水量和风速波动较大、并存在上升和下降的趋势。相比基准情景,在RCP2.6、RCP4.5、RCP6.0和RCP8.5情景下,各土壤风蚀扬尘TSP、PM10和PM2.5季节排放速率在春季分别高15%、47%、28%和46%;秋季分别高17%、54%、45%和38%;冬季分别低36%、42%、39%和44%;夏季,在RCP2.6情景下低1%,在RCP4.5、RCP6.0和RCP8.5情景下分别高14%、3%和7%;未来气候变化情景下,各土壤风蚀扬尘TSP、PM10和PM2.5年排放速率分别高25%、54%、35%和54%。基准和未来气候变化情景下,土壤风蚀扬尘TSP、PM10和PM2.5的季节和年排放速率及其差异从高到低均依次为砂粘壤土、风沙土、砂壤土、粘壤土、壤粘土和砂粘土。表明未来气候变化将使河北坝上地区草地土壤风蚀扬尘排放速率增加,但存在季节和气候变化情景方面的差异。     

The analysis of limited climatic data with reference to wind erosion risk in semi-arid to arid regions

Climatic data are frequently limited in semi-arid to arid regions. A method is proposed for presenting these data so that a qualitative assessment can be made at any site. The use of regression analysis and reciprocal distance squared for obtaining estimates of data were investigated. Pattern analysis was used to define zones of similar climatic characteristics.As a specific example, the climatic elements influencing wind erosion in the semi-arid to arid region of New South Wales have been investigated. Wind erosion is the main form of erosion in this region. For selected centres, seasonal aridity and erosive wind force indices were derived. These were combined to give erosion indices for each centre. On the basis of their aridity and erosion indices, these centres were classified into zones.The advantages of using this method of classification are simplicity of presentation and ease of interpretation.     

The effects of bushfires on hydrological processes using a paired-catchment analysis

Summary Several problems associated with capturing the effects of bushfires on hydrological processes in the Goulburn River catchment (6810km²), Hunter Valley, Australia are investigated using a paired-catchment analysis. It is suggested, first, that the within-year-missing data, as defined in this paper, need to be examined carefully when using the double-mass curve of annual total discharge in a paired-catchment analysis. Second, in order to provide an accurate precipitation background, which is one of the most important prerequisites for a paired-catchment analysis, the use of annual average precipitation is strongly recommended together with annual total precipitation when there are large amounts of within-year-missing data. Third, caution is needed in comparing multi-year average precipitation and streamflow data before and after the fire when the data series is not statistically long enough, since the average values for precipitation and streamflow over a different number of years may produce completely contrasting results. Fourth, the analysis of the flow duration curve, which is another useful technique in paired-catchment analysis, needs to be interpreted from the precipitation duration curve. This is because the change of flow duration curve can be caused either from the change of precipitation or the fire. Fifth, the change in streamflow, calculated by subtracting the average streamflow for the non-fire years from the observed streamflow for the years in which fires occurred, is not an efficient way of capturing the fire effects. The problem associated with this approach is not just that the streamflow is strongly dependent on rainfall, as reported elsewhere, but also, it can lead to misinterpretation using the hydrograph when the average streamflow in non-fire years is close to the average streamflow in fire years.By taking into account the above problems there was no effect of fires found on streamflow in the Goulburn River catchment. This result contrasts with the conclusions reported from other studies that have reported an immediate increase in streamflow by experimental analyses, paired-catchment analyses or modelling studies. Instead, it is shown that the spatial pattern of precipitation over the Goulburn River catchment is more important in shaping the hydrograph than the effects of bushfires. The ratio of fire extent to catchment area is approximately 4% in this study, which we suggest is a minimum area required to identify a hydrological response to the fires. The fact that other studies have focused more on capturing the generally expected effect of an immediate increase in streamflow after fire, than on why this effect occurs, makes it highly desirable to undertake micro-meteorological experiments to obtain observed evapotranspiration data before and after fire. Also, it is important to develop a coupled soil-vegetation-atmosphere-transfer dynamic mechanism and high resolution numerical weather prediction model with a distributed hydrological model in order to simulate more realistically the effect of fire on hydrological processes.     

光合遥感-水分胁迫作物估产技术在华北地区的推广应用

本项目开展自主研发的RSPCYWM模型系统已在我国华北地区作物生长过程监测和估产中大范围推广及应用,包括RSPCYWM模型的检验、作物生长发育期的生物量和产量估算;同时改进作物模型系统,加入RUBISCO酶限制的作物光合速率模块,作物冠层水分导度模块,以求更加真实地模拟作物的生产过程和对华北地区作物的估产,使监测和模拟精度达到95％以上。     

Dynamical effects of environmental vertical wind shear on tropical cyclone motion, structure, and intensity

Summary A series of numerical experiments on an f plane are conducted using the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University-National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model, version 3 (MM5) to investigate how environmental vertical wind shear affects the motion, structure, and intensity of a tropical cyclone. The results show that a tropical cyclone has a motion component perpendicular to the vertical shear vector, first to the right of the shear and then to the left. An initially axisymmetric, upright tropical cyclone vortex develops a downshear tilt and wavenumber-one asymmetry when embedded in environmental vertical wind shear. In both small-moderate shears, a storm weakens slightly compared to that in a quiescent environment. The circulation centers between 300 hPa and the surface varies from 20 km to over 80 km. The secondary circulation becomes quite asymmetric about the surface cyclone center. As a result, convection on the upshear-right quadrant diminishes, limiting the upward heat transport in the eyewall and thus lowering the warm core and leading to a weakening of the storm. In strong vertical shear (above 12 m s⁻¹), the vertical tilt exceeds 160 km in 48 h of simulation and the secondary circulation on the upshear side is completely destroyed with low-level outflow. The axisymmetric component of eyewall convection weakens remarkably and becomes much less penetrative. As a result, the warm core becomes weak and appears at lower levels and the storm weakens rapidly accordingly. This up-down weakening mechanism discussed in this study is different from those previously discussed. It emphasizes the penetrative role of eyewall convection in transporting heat from the ocean to the mid-upper troposphere, maintaining the warm core structure of the tropical cyclone. The vertical shear is found negative to eyewall penetrative convection.