空气间隔装药爆破机理研究

利用爆轰波理论分析了空气间隔装药炮孔内一维不定常激波的相互作用及其在炮孔堵头、孔底的反射过程,同时分析了孔内各点的压力随时间的变化过程,介绍了空气间隔装药爆破的机理及设计参数。基于此,认为应充分利用空气间隔爆破结构的优势,并在梯段爆破中满足以下两个条件：（1）在设计过程中要尽量使稀疏波及从孔底反射的稀疏波传播过程能在整个孔内每一断面都作用到,即稀疏波到达孔底的时间要比从堵头反射的压力波到达孔底要早;（2）反射压力波应该到达空气与爆生气体接触面的时间比从孔底反射的稀疏波到达空气与爆生气体接触面的时间要早。由此通过计算得到了在梯段爆破工程中合理的空气层长度比例值约为30 %～42 %。计算结论与已有实测成果基本一致。     

Theory and Practice of Air-Deck Blasting in Mines and Surface Excavations: A Review

The mechanism by which the explosive energy is transferred to the surrounding rock mass is changed in air-deck blasting. It allows the explosive energy to act repeatedly in pulses on the surrounding rock mass rather than instantly as in the case of concentrated charge blasting. The air-deck acts as a regulator, which first stores energy and then releases it in separate pulses. The release of explosion products in the air gap causes a decrease in the initial bore hole pressure and allows oscillations of shock waves in the air gap. The performance of an air-deck blast is basically derived from the expansion of gaseous products and subsequent multiple interactions between shock waves within an air column, shock waves and stemming base and shock waves and hole bottom. This phenomenon causes repeated loading on the surrounding rock mass by secondary shock fronts for a prolonged period. The length of air column and the rock mass structure are critical to the ultimate results. Several attempts have been made in the past to study the mechanism of air-deck blasting and to investigate its effects on blast performance but a clear understanding of the underlying mechanism and the physical processes to explain its actual effects is yet to emerge. In the absence of any theoretical basis, the air-deck blast designs are invariably carried out by the rules of thumb. The field trials of this technique in different blast environments have demonstrated its effectiveness in routine production blasting, pre-splitting and controlling over break and ground vibrations etc. The air-deck length appropriate to the different rock masses and applications need to be defined more explicitly. It generally ranges between 0.10 and 0.30 times the original charge length. Mid column air-deck is preferred over the top and bottom air-decks. Top air-deck is used especially in situations, which require adequate breakage in the stemming region. The influence of air-deck location within the hole on blast performance also requires further studies. This paper reviews the status of knowledge on the theory and practice of air-deck blasting in mines and surface excavations and brings out the areas for further investigation in this technique of blasting.     

Borehole pressures in an air decked situation

In the late 1970s and early 1980s in conjunction with other oil and gas well stimulation studies, personnel from the Dynamic Effects Laboratory performed model testing to demonstrate the effectiveness of utilizing an open section of borehole just before a plug. We called the process stem induced fracturing. The open section beneath the stem was used to increase the pressure magnitude and spread out the duration of the pressure pulse. This technique was later utilized by Frank Chiapetta [Chiappetta, R.F. and Mammele, M.E., 1987, Analytical high-speed photography to evaluate air decks, stemming retention and gas confinement in pre-splitting, reclamation and gross motion applications. Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Keystone, Colorado, USA, 257 - 309] in the fracture and fragmentation of rock in quarry blasting situations. He called his technique air deck blasting. In fact, Frank found that the Russians had previously discovered the same technique. There is currently interest in utilizing the same technique with an open hole beneath the explosive at the bottom of the bore hole to better remove the toe in a fragmentation shot. This paper reviews the development of stem induced fracturing and describes a series of model tests conducted to measure borehole pressure at points along a borehole when an explosive charge is detonated at the midpoint of the borehole. Tests were conducted in both stiff boreholes (aluminum) and less rigid boreholes (PMMA). Pressure time profiles were measured at the charge site, midway between the charge and the bottom of the hole, at the stemming at the top of the borehole, and at the bottom of the borehole. Crack initiation sites and crack propagation were also determined in the PMMA models. Some high speed pictures were taken of the event in the PMMA.     

Modelling the effects of discontinuity orientation, continuity, and dip on the process of burden breakage in bench blasting

The objective of this paper is to introduce the development of a dynamic blasthole expansion model, which is coupled to the discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA) code of Shi (1988). The developed model considers the effects of blast geometry (blasthole shape, angle, and location), the physical properties of the intact rock and existing discontinuities, the distribution and orientation of pre-existing discontinuities, and the blasthole pressure on the processes of burden breakage, fragment throw and muckpile formation. The newly modified DDA code (DDA_BLAST) describes the expansion of the blasthole as a function of blast chamber volume and time. It is assumed in the code that the rock is already fragmented in-situ due to the intersection of pre-existing discontinuities and the passage of stress wave. Hence, the model only considers the gas pressurization phase of the blasting process. Moreover, the proposed model for the blasthole expansion assumes an adiabatic expansion of explosion products and variations in the explosion pressure upon expansion of the blast chamber are calculated from an equation of state. Accordingly, the newly modified DDA_BLAST code was used to simulate typical blasting problems in jointed media and delve into the mechanisms involved (in a macro scale) in the gas pressurization phase of the blasting process, burden breakage, and the effects of the discontinuity properties on the process of rock breakage by blasting.     

Modelling Rock Blasting Considering Explosion Gas Penetration Using Discontinuous Deformation Analysis

Explosion gas plays an important role in rock mass fragmentation and cast in rock blasting. In this technical note, the discontinuous deformation analysis method is extended for bench rock blasting by coupling the rock mass failure process and the penetration effect of the explosion gas based on a generalized artificial joint concept to model rock mass fracturing. By tracking the blast chamber evolution dynamically, instant explosion gas pressure is derived from the blast chamber volume using a simple polytropic gas pressure equation of state and loaded on the blast chamber wall. A bench blasting example is carried out. The blast chamber volume and pressure time histories are obtained. The rock failure and movement process in bench rock blasting is reproduced and analysed.     

A Non-Ideal Detonation Model for Evaluating the Performance of Explosives in Rock Blasting

Summary  A new model to predict the non-ideal detonation behaviour of commercial explosives in rock blasting is presented. The model combines the slightly divergent flow theory, polytropic equation of state, simple pressure-dependent rate law and statistical expressions to model the effect of confinement on detonation. The model has been designated as DeNE, an acronym for the Detonics of Non-ideal Explosives. It is aimed at predicting the detonation state and subsequent rarefaction (Taylor) wave to provide the pressure history for different explosive, rock type and blasthole diameter combinations. It enables the prediction and comparison of the performance of commercial explosives in different blasting environments. The unconfined detonation velocity data has been obtained from the testing of six commercial explosives to calibrate DeNE. A detailed sensitivity analysis has been conducted to evaluate the model. The model has been validated using the results of hydrocodes as well as measured and published in-hole detonation velocity data. Author’s address: Sedat Esen, Metso Minerals Process Technology (Asia-Pacific), Unit 1, 8–10 Chapman Place, Eagle Farm, Qld 4009, Australia     

Modelling rock fracturing and blast-induced rock mass failure via advanced discretisation within the discontinuous deformation analysis framework

Rock mass failure is a particularly complex process that involves the opening and sliding of existing discontinuities and the fracturing of the intact rock. This paper adopts an advanced discretisation approach to simulate rock failure problems within the discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA) framework. The accuracy of this approach in continuum analysis is verified first. Then, the advanced discretisation approach for fracturing modelling is presented, and the discretisation strategy is discussed. Sample rock static failures are simulated and the results are compared with experimental results. Thereafter, with a generalised definition of the artificial joints, this approach is further extended and applied in the simulation of blast-induced rock mass failures in which the instant explosion gas pressure obtained by the detonation pressure equation of state is loaded on the main blast chamber walls and the induced surrounding connected fracture surfaces. In the simulation instance of rock mass cast blasting, the whole process, including the blast chamber expansion, explosion gas penetration, rock mass failure and cast, and the formation of the final blasting pile, is wholly reproduced.     

Blast Design Using Measurement While Drilling Parameters

Measurement while drilling (MWD) techniques can provide a useful tool to aid drill and blast engineers in open cut mining. By avoiding time consuming tasks such as scan-lines and rock sample collection for laboratory tests, MWD techniques can not only save time but also improve the reliability of the blast design by providing the drill and blast engineer with the information specially tailored for use. While most mines use a standard blast pattern and charge per blasthole, based on a single rock factor for the entire bench or blast region, information derived from the MWD parameters can improve the blast design by providing more accurate rock properties for each individual blasthole. From this, decisions can be made on the most appropriate type and amount of explosive charge to place in a per blasthole or to optimise the inter-hole timing detonation time of different decks and blastholes. Where real-time calculations are feasible, the system could extend the present blast design even be used to determine the placement of subsequent holes towards a more appropriate blasthole pattern design like asymmetrical blasting.     

单自由面爆破振动特征的炮孔堵塞长度效应

单自由面爆破条件下作用在岩体上的最有效破坏力小,而阻碍岩体破坏的作用力很大,使炮孔堵塞长度对爆破振动有较大影响。因此,研究单自由面爆破振动特征的炮孔堵塞长度效应有重要意义。进行了小规模的不同堵塞长度的单自由面爆破试验,并模拟了其爆破过程。研究表明,近距范围内爆破振动速度迅速衰减,中远距离爆破振动速度衰减趋缓;随着堵塞长度的增加,场地系数K不断增加,衰减指数? 总体呈上升趋势;数值模拟振动速度值与实测值误差在15%以内;爆破后不同堵塞长度模型的堵塞物底部空腔半径基本相等,约为装药半径的3倍;试验最优堵塞长度为15～20 cm,相同条件下无堵塞爆破对孔口有效应力场影响较大、对孔底有效应力场影响较小     

Application of Air Decks in Production Blasting to Improve Fragmentation and Economics of an Open Pit Mine

In blasting with air decks, repeated oscillation of shock waves within the air gap increases the time over which it acts on the surrounding rock mass by a factor at between 2 and 5. The ultimate effect lies in increasing the crack network in the surrounding rock and reducing the burden movement. Trials of air deck blasting in the structurally unfavourable footwall side of an open pit manganese mine has resulted in substantial improvements in fragmentation and blast economics. Better fragmentation resulted in improved shovel loading efficiency by 50–60%. Secondary blasting was almost eliminated. Use of ANFO explosive with this technique reduced explosive cost by 31.6%. Other benefits included reductions in overbreak, throw and ground vibration of the order of 60–70, 65–85 and 44% respectively. This paper reviews the theory of air deck blasting and describes in detail the air deck blast trials conducted in a manganese open pit mine in India. The blast performance data have been analysed to evaluate the benefits of air decking over conventional blasting.     

What Causes Cracks in Rock Blasting?

In blasting, a few or many cracks are driven from the borehole into the rock. But what causes the cracks? The most common theory of breakage consists of two stages; first the shock wave causes radial cracks to form around the hole then the gases penetrate into the cracks, and widen them and make them longer. Another theory presented by Brinkmann suggests that the back damage is primarily controlled by shock and that the gas penetration is the mechanism controlling breakout of the burden. He did his experimental work using blasthole liners. Recent research at SveBeFo has examined this matter further. In a quarry a number of benching holes have been blasted simultaneously. In some of these holes tubular Swellex bolts were inflated and decoupled charges put inside the tubes without stemming. Other holes were identically charged but without the lining. Finally some holes were also stemmed. After blasting the cracks in the remaining rock were studied. There was no difference in crack lengths between holes charged normally (no stemming) and holes where the charges were inside the bolts. On the other hand when stemming was used, the crack lengths increased for some explosives but remained the same for an emulsion explosive. In another set up blasted granite blocks were charged in the same way as above. Then we could also measure the bore hole pressure. The pressure gauge consists of a small carbon resistor inside a steel cylinder. It is called LHM (Location-fixed Hydrodynamic Measuring cup) and is placed at the bottom of the hole. A smaller exit hole from the bottom is drilled for the cables. The paper presents the technique and the results obtained from both the quarry blasting and the blasting of the blocks.     

水不耦合炮孔装药爆破冲击波的形成和传播

探讨了炮孔和装药间以水不耦合介质爆破时,在爆轰波压力和高压、高温爆生气体压力作用下,水中爆炸冲击波的形成和传播规律,求解了冲击波的初始参数和孔壁处冲击波参数,并应用弹性波动理论,提出了正入射情况下岩石内的初始冲击压力。     

节理岩体爆破的DDA方法模拟

在非连续变形分析（DDA）方法中,通过跟踪炮孔扩张和炮孔周边裂隙的发展贯通求得爆腔的即时体积,进而根据爆生压力状态方程计算爆腔即时压力,并将爆生压力载荷作用到主炮孔内壁和贯通裂隙面上,实现了爆生产物作用下节理岩体爆破的DDA方法模拟。采用DDA方法模拟了节理岩体中的水平柱状炮孔抛掷爆破问题,得到了爆腔的体积扩张和压力衰减时间曲线,模拟很好的再现了岩石爆破过程中的炮孔扩张、岩体破坏、块体抛掷和爆堆形成过程。     

不同地应力条件下双孔爆破的数值模拟

考虑岩石介质的非均匀性,把爆破过程视为爆炸应力波和爆生气体压力共同作用的结果,基于损伤力学理论建立了岩石爆破的力学模型,并对不同地应力条件下岩石双孔爆破裂纹演化规律进行了数值模拟,分析了不同侧压力系数和埋 深对裂纹扩展规律的影响。数值模拟结果表明：①爆炸应力波导致裂纹的萌生,爆生气体压力则会使裂纹进一步扩展和贯通; ②裂纹演化过程与地应力密切相关,裂纹扩展的主方向趋于最大地应力方向;③随着埋深增加和初始地应力增大,裂纹扩展半径和裂纹区面积减小,地应力对爆破致裂的抑制作用明显。     

Use of Air-Decks to Reduce Subdrillings in Escondida Mine

This paper aims to show the results and comparison obtained from blasting using overdrilled blastholes and blasting using a bottom of the blasthole located air-deck. The effect of using a blasthole air-deck, on medium to low hardness rock found in the western area of the Escondida pit, helped maintain the required grade level even after loading with heavy equipment. Additional benefits include satisfactory fragmentation of the blasted material.     

基于ANSYS/LS-DYNA的岩石爆破结构数值模拟分析

等离子爆破技术是一种新型爆破技术,其爆破孔的设计对整个爆破效果及爆破效率起着决定性的作用。本文基于ANSYS/LS-DYNA建立了爆破孔的有限元模型,并对爆炸荷载作用下掏槽孔孔壁压力及其破碎区进行了数值模拟。研究结果表明,爆破时畸变能的变化自始至终都基本呈椭圆形,孔径越小,积累的能量越大,对岩体破坏越大;孔深长度越短,能量积聚空间越小,爆破对岩体造成的破坏越大;孔深长度的改变对下部岩体影响较小,对中部岩体影响较大。此外由于爆炸实验多为破坏性实验,很难进行原型试验,因此使用数值模拟方法研究爆破孔的结构是可行的,可以作为实际工程的参考。     

爆炸荷载下岩石损伤机理及其力学特性研究

基于所建立的反映岩石冲击压缩、拉伸损伤理论模型以及深孔微差爆破数值模拟结果,研究了爆炸载荷作用下岩石损伤演化和破碎规律,分析了岩石的动态力学特性;通过对水平边界条件下爆破破岩物理、力学过程的研究,探讨了深孔微差爆破的作用机制和爆破设计原则。     

A Statistical Approach to Predict the Effect of Confinement on the Detonation Velocity of Commercial Explosives

Summary Commercial explosives behave non-ideally in rock blasting. A direct and convenient measure of non-ideality is the detonation velocity. In this study, an alternative model fitted to experimental unconfined detonation velocity data is proposed and the effect of confinement on the detonation velocity is modelled. Unconfined data of several explosives showing various levels of non-ideality were successfully modelled. The effect of confinement on detonation velocity was modelled empirically based on field detonation velocity measurements. Confined detonation velocity is a function of the ideal detonation velocity, unconfined detonation velocity at a given blasthole diameter and rock stiffness. For a given explosive and charge diameter, as confinement increases detonation velocity increases. The confinement model is implemented in a simple engineering based non-ideal detonation model. A number of simulations are carried out and analysed to predict the explosive performance parameters for the adopted blasting conditions.     

Lower blasthole pressures: a means of reducing costs when blasting rocks of low to moderate strength

Summary From a purely mechanical viewpoint, each explosive charge should produce a peak blasthole pressure (P _b ) that just fails to crush (i.e. pulverise or plastically deform) the rock which surrounds it. WhereP _b exceeds a critical value, some explosion energy is wasted in crushing an annular section of rock immediately around each charge. As a rock's dynamic compressive breaking strain decreases, so shouldP _b (Hagan, 1977b).This paper reviews information on, and anticipates the blasting performance of, bulk charges having effective densities which are as low as about 40% of that for ammonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO). It also outlines the potential advantages of extending the reaction periods of charges, even to the extent that explosive reactions continue after the blasthole wall and stemming have started to move. The paper then proceeds to define situations in which the use of such lower-pressure charges is likely to result in greatest reductions in mining costs. Some methods of applying bulk charges having effective densities in the 0.3–0.8 g cm^–3 range and/or lower reaction rates are suggested.     

硬岩隧道高压气体膨胀破岩开挖试验

为了解决传统钻爆法在隧道工程中振动大的问题,引入一种新型破岩技术--高压气体膨胀破岩技术。通过在某隧道掌子面采用该技术进行现场试验,获得该技术试验时的振动速度值和试验后的破岩效果,将获得的结果与传统钻爆法得到的相应结果进行对比分析,结果表明,高压气体膨胀破岩技术在施工时产生的振动比钻爆法小,证明了将该技术应用在隧道工程中是可行的,解决了该隧道采用钻爆法施工振动风险大的问题,为类似工程破岩提供了一种新途径。