Terrestrial laser scanner self-calibration: Correlation sources and their mitigation

Instrument calibration is recognised as an important process to assure the quality of data captured with a terrestrial laser scanner. While the self-calibration approach can provide optimal estimates of systematic error parameters without the need for specialised equipment or facilities, its success is somewhat hindered by high correlations between model variables. This paper presents the findings of a detailed study into the sources of correlation in terrestrial laser scanner self-calibration for a basic additional parameter set. Several pertinent outcomes, resulting from experiments conducted with simulated data, and 12 real calibration datasets captured with a Faro 880 terrestrial laser scanner, are presented. First, it is demonstrated that panoramic-type scanner self-calibration from only two instrument locations is possible so long as the scans have orthogonal orientation in the horizontal plane. Second, the importance of including scanner tilt angle observations in the adjustment for parameter de-correlation is demonstrated. Third, a new network measure featuring an asymmetric distribution of object points that does not rely upon a priori observation of the instrument position is proposed. It is shown to be an effective means to reduce the correlation between the rangefinder offset and the scanner position parameters. Fourth, the roles of several other influencing variables on parameter correlation are revealed. The paper concludes with a set of recommended design measures to reduce parameter correlation in terrestrial laser scanner self-calibration.     

Error modelling,calibration and analysis of an AM–CW terrestrial laser scanner system

A rigorous method for terrestrial laser scanner self-calibration using a network of signalised points is presented. Exterior orientation, object point co-ordinates and additional parameters are estimated simultaneously by free network adjustment. Spherical co-ordinate observation equations are augmented with a set of additional parameters that model systematic errors in range, horizontal direction and elevation angle. The error models include both physically interpretable and empirically identified components. Though the focus is on one particular make and model of AM–CW scanner system, the Faro 880, the mathematical models are formulated in a general framework so their application to other instruments only requires selection of an appropriate set of additional parameters. Results from controlled testing show that significant improvement is achieved by using the proposed model in terms of both reducing the magnitude of observational residuals as well as the three-dimensional positioning accuracy of signalised points. Ten self-calibration datasets captured over the course of 13 months are used to examine short- and long-term additional parameter stability via standard hypothesis testing techniques. Detailed investigations into correlation mechanisms between model parameters accompany the self-calibration solution analyses. Other contributions include an observation model for incorporation of integrated inclinometer observations into the self-calibration solution and an effective a priori outlier removal method. The benefit of the former is demonstrated to be reduced correlation between exterior orientation and additional parameters, even if inclinometer precision is low. The latter is arrived at by detailed analysis of the influence of incidence angle on range.     

A unified approach to self-calibration of terrestrial laser scanners

In recent years, the method of self-calibration widely used in photogrammetry has been found suitable for the estimation of systematic errors in terrestrial laser scanners. Since high correlations can be present between the estimated parameters, ways to reduce them have to be found. This paper presents a unified approach to self-calibration of terrestrial laser scanners, where the parameters in a least-squares adjustment are treated as observations by assigning appropriate weights to them. The higher these weights are the lower the parameter correlations are expected to be. Self-calibration of a pulsed laser scanner Leica Scan Station was performed with the unified approach. The scanner position and orientation were determined during the measurements with the help of a total station, and the point clouds were directly georeferenced. The significant systematic errors were zero error in the laser rangefinder and vertical circle index error. Most parameter correlations were comparatively low. In part, precise knowledge of the horizontal coordinates of the scanner centre helped greatly to achieve low correlation between these parameters and the zero error. The approach was shown to be advantageous to the use of adjustment with stochastic (weighted) inner constraints where the parameter correlations were higher. At the same time, the collimation error could not be estimated reliably due to its high correlation with the scanner azimuth because of a limited vertical distribution of the targets in the calibration field. While this problem can be solved for a scanner with a nearly spherical field-of-view, it will complicate the calibration of scanners with limited vertical field-of-view. Investigations into the influence of precision of the scanner position and levelling on the adjustment results lead to two important findings. First, it is not necessary to level the scanner during the measurements when using the unified approach since the parameter correlations are relatively low anyway. Second, the scanner position has to be known with a precision of about 1 mm in order to get a reliable estimate of the zero error.     

车载3D激光扫描系统集成技术

移动激光扫描技术是从上世纪90年代初逐步发展起来的一门测绘技术,也是当今测绘界最为前沿的技术之一,可用于工程测量和制图等诸多领域。地面3D激光扫描仪具有测量速度快,精度高等优点。本文以奥地利RIEGL公司的地面三维激光扫描仪VZ400为例,研究将其作为移动测量系统的主要传感器所涉及的关键技术,包括联机控制、时间基准统一和空间基准统一三个方面:解析了激光扫描仪的接口定义,并结合联机控制的开发库——RiVLIB实现的仪器的联机控与数据通信;给出了基于GPS秒脉冲信号的时间同步原理,实现了系统时间基准的传递与统一;分析了移动测量系统中的坐标系,并根据地面三维激光扫描仪的实际情况,构建了单站的参数标定模型。通过本文的研究与实验,使测量系统实现常见移动测量的二维帧扫描模式以及针对重点区域的三维全景扫描模式,同时,当它闲置时还可将激光扫描仪拆卸进行静态的扫描,丰富了系统的测量方式,提高了系统的适应性与使用效率。     

三维激光扫描技术在房产测量中的应用研究

在分析三维激光扫描技术和现有房产测量方式的基础上,结合宁波市梅山岛某曲面异型建筑房产测量的实际情况,提出三维激光扫描技术在房产测量中的解决方案。通过该工程项目的具体应用,展现了三维激光扫描技术在异型房产测量中的良好应用前景。     

地面三维激光扫描点云拼接影响因素分析

在地面三维激光扫描仪进行三维建模过程中,需要对不同测站的点云进行拼接。为了提高不同测站点云拼接精度,本文开展了球形标靶表面扫描点数量、标靶的分布和数量及扫描距离4个因素对三维激光扫描仪不同测站下点云拼接精度的影响研究。采用法如（FOCUS）三维激光扫描仪开展了不同扫描分辨率、不同标靶数量、不同标靶分布和不同距离下的点云拼接试验,并采用SENCE软件对点云进行了拼接精度分析。试验结果表明,选择两测站的标靶表面的扫描点数量大致相等,并将4个标靶作为连接点,且放置在不同高度不规则排列时,点云拼接的精度最优。     

低成本大视场深度相机阵列系统

在测距传感器不断轻量化、小型化以及室内外地图一体化导航应用的驱动下,三维（3D）室内移动测量成为当今研究和应用的热点,在室内建模、室内定位等新兴领域中的应用越来越广泛。3D室内移动测量系统通常配备激光扫描仪、全景相机、惯性测量单元（inertial measurement unit,IMU）系统和里程计等传感器,虽能实现3D室内点云数据的采集,但其距离传感器-激光扫描仪价格昂贵且便携性较差。彩色深度（RGB depth,RGB-D）相机为低成本3D室内移动测量系统构建提供了新的距离成像传感器选择,但主流型号RGB-D相机视场角小,继而导致数据采集效率远低于传统激光扫描仪,难以做到点云数据的完整覆盖与稳健采集,且易造成同时定位与制图（simultaneous localization and mapping,SLAM）过程中跟踪失败。针对以上问题,构建了一种低成本室内3D移动测量系统采集设备,通过组合多台消费级RGB-D相机构成大视场RGB-D相机阵列,提出了一种阵列RGB-D相机内外参数标定方法,并通过实验检验了设计系统采集的点云数据的精度。     

Automated matching of multiple terrestrial laser scans for stem mapping without the use of artificial references

Terrestrial laser scanning has been widely used to analyze the 3D structure of a forest in detail and to generate data at the level of a reference plot for forest inventories without destructive measurements. Multi-scan terrestrial laser scanning is more commonly applied to collect plot-level data so that all of the stems can be detected and analyzed. However, it is necessary to match the point clouds of multiple scans to yield a point cloud with automated processing. Mismatches between datasets will lead to errors during the processing of multi-scan data. Classic registration methods based on flat surfaces cannot be directly applied in forest environments; therefore, artificial reference objects have conventionally been used to assist with scan matching. The use of artificial references requires additional labor and expertise, as well as greatly increasing the cost. In this study, we present an automated processing method for plot-level stem mapping that matches multiple scans without artificial references. In contrast to previous studies, the registration method developed in this study exploits the natural geometric characteristics among a set of tree stems in a plot and combines the point clouds of multiple scans into a unified coordinate system. Integrating multiple scans improves the overall performance of stem mapping in terms of the correctness of tree detection, as well as the bias and the root-mean-square errors of forest attributes such as diameter at breast height and tree height. In addition, the automated processing method makes stem mapping more reliable and consistent among plots, reduces the costs associated with plot-based stem mapping, and enhances the efficiency.     

地面三维激光扫描仪测距检校与精度评定

作为一项新的数据获取技术,地面三维激光扫描技术正被越来越多地应用于多个领域,同时也对该技术测量精度提出了更高的要求。本文根据六段解析模型设计合理有效的试验过程,拟对徕卡C10三维激光扫描仪的测距检校与精度进行评定,为提高今后地面三维激光扫描仪测量精度提供参考。     

地面3维激光扫描技术在古建筑保护中的应用研究

地面3维激光扫描仪是通过高速激光扫描测量的方法,大面积、高分辨率地快速获取被测对象表面的3维坐标数据,根据3维数据可以构建3维模型,为古建筑保护等提供数据依据。本文对地面3维激光扫描技术进行了简单探讨,通过具体实例研究分析其在古建筑保护中的应用。     

不同扫描方式对平面标靶拟合精度的影响

由于地面三维激光扫描仪扫描精度对扫描距离、扫描分辨率及扫描方向具有很强的依赖性,因此研究其与扫描距离、扫描分辨率及扫描方向的关系对实验分析及工程应用具有很重要的意义。本文利用Faro Focus 3 D激光扫描仪从不同距离、扫描分辨率、扫描方向对不同形状的平面标靶进行实验,研究不同的扫描方式对平面标靶拟合精度的影响,并进一步判断扫描仪是否存在较大的轴系误差,为后期的自检校提供依据。     

基于地面激光扫描的三山南桥载荷变形监测研究

地面激光扫描技术能从复杂的实体中获取精确的3维细节信息,这对于高效的全景设计以及建模工程是至关重要的。但在变形监测领域,地面激光扫描技术的可靠性并没有被充分验证。本文结合三山南桥的载荷试验进行变形监测的研究,使用了地面激光扫描和精密水准测量的方法对其产生的变形进行了检测,重点论述了三山南桥的负载测试以及使用地面激光扫描技术对桥梁变形的观测结果,并对比分析了地面激光扫描和精密水准测量的结果,为使用激光扫描仪进行变形测量的后续应用奠定了初步基础。     

地面点云处理系统集成研究与实现

地面点云数据后处理及软件研制是制约地面三维激光扫描技术进一步发展的关键因素。本文集成Oracle存储、PCL模块点云算法、OpenGL三维显示技术,初步研发了一套集点云存储、处理、显示、查询功能于一体的地面点云处理系统。通过RIEGL VZ-400扫描的雕像测试点云,验证了本文提出的三种技术集成开发地面点云处理系统的可行性和系统功能的稳健性。为进一步研究地面点云数据处理系统提供有益的参考。     

Sensor modeling,self-calibration and accuracy testing of panoramic cameras and laser scanners

Terrestrial Linear Array CCD-based panoramic cameras have been used for purely imaging purposes, but they also have a high potential for use in high accuracy measurement applications. The imaging geometry and the high information content of those images make them suitable candidates for quantitative image analysis. For that a particular sensor model has to be established and the inherent accuracy potential has to be investigated. We developed a sensor model for terrestrial Linear Array-based panoramic cameras by means of a modified bundle adjustment with additional parameters, which models substantial deviations of a real camera from the ideal one. We used 3D straight-line information in addition to tie points to conduct a full calibration and orientation without control point information. Due to the similarity of the operation of laser scanners to panoramic cameras the sensor model of the panoramic cameras was extended for the self-calibration of laser scanners. We present the joint sensor model for panoramic cameras and laser scanners and the results of self-calibration, which indicate a subpixel accuracy level for such highly dynamic systems. Finally we demonstrate the systems’ accuracy of two typical panoramic cameras in 3D point positioning, using both a minimal number of control points and a free network adjustment. With these new panoramic imaging devices we have additional powerful sensors for image recording and efficient 3D object modeling.     

Application of multispectral LiDAR to automated virtual outcrop geology

Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) is a valuable tool for creating virtual 3D models of geological outcrops to enable enhanced modeling and analysis of geologic strata. Application of TLS data is typically limited to the geometric point cloud that is used to create the 3D structure of the outcrop model. Digital photography can then be draped onto the 3D model, allowing visual identification and manual spatial delineation of different rock layers. Automation of the rock type identification and delineation is desirable, and recent work has investigated the use of terrestrial hyperspectral photography for this purpose. However, passive photography, whether visible or hyperspectral, presents several complexities, including accurate spatial registration with the TLS point cloud data, reliance on sunlight for illumination, and radiometric calibration to properly extract spectral signatures of the different rock types. As an active remote sensing method, a radiometrically calibrated TLS system offers the potential to directly provide spectral information for each recorded 3D point, independent of solar illumination. Therefore, the practical application of three radiometrically calibrated TLS systems with differing laser wavelengths, thereby achieving a multispectral dataset in conjunction with 3D point cloud data, is investigated using commercially available hardware and software. The radiometric calibration of the TLS intensity values is investigated and the classification performance of the multispectral TLS intensity and calibrated reflectance datasets evaluated and compared to classification performed with passive visible wavelength imagery. Results indicate that rock types can be successfully identified with radiometrically calibrated multispectral TLS data, with enhanced classification performance when fused with passive visible imagery.     

Trimble TX8三维激光扫描仪在山地面积计量中的应用

基于复杂山地面积计量的应用需要,本文采用Trimble TX8三维激光扫描仪进行架站扫描测量,采用复杂环境下多架站的方法,对近10万m²的山地地形进行扫描拼接,并利用Realworks后期处理软件进行三维建模分析,得出较为清晰、直观、准确的三维建模图形,得到面积计算的系列报表,为三维激光扫描仪在地形测绘面积计量方面的应用拓展提供了实例。     

三维激光扫描仪平缓地形分区扫描方法研究

三维激光扫描仪对平缓地形扫描作业时,存在点密度不均匀、冗余数据多、有效扫描半径小等限制。为减少上述限制,提高作业效率,在深入分析三维激光扫描仪工作原理的基础上,提出分区扫描方法:根据到扫描仪中心距离的不同,将扫描范围分为若干环状区域,每个环状区域分别对应不同的竖直扫描夹角,各区域基于扫描点密度均衡的原则,设置不同的扫描参数。试验结果表明:竖直扫描角度分别为88°~89°、85°~88°、70°~85°、45°~70°的分区扫描方法为较理想的方法,与整体扫描方式相比,前者在作业效率、有效扫描半径等方面均有明显优势,数据点密度分布得到很大改善,利用效率明显提高。     

地面三维激光扫描技术在公路建模中的应用

为解决传统技术获取公路数据效率低,数据不够精确与详细的问题,本文提出了将地面三维激光扫描技术应用于公路建模的数据采集方案和数据处理方法。根据地面激光扫描的特点和公路建模要求,设计出按最佳扫描距离进行分段设站、分块扫描的数据采集方案。经过点云配准和滤波等预处理后,利用点云几何信息进行了数字表面模型、等高线、纵横断面等模型生成。本文以Trimble GS200地面三维激光扫描仪为例对高速公路路面进行数据采集,以Realworks Survey5.0作为建模工具进行路面建模。结果表明采集方案能提高获取原始数据的效率,并且保证了数据质量,降低了数据处理的复杂程度。     

天宝GX200地面三维激光扫描仪鉴别率检定

三维激光扫描技术是一种新兴的全自动、高精度测量技术。三维激光扫描仪能够在短时间内大面积、高密度地获取目标的空间点云数据,逼真细腻地描述目标表面。三维激光扫描仪作为一种测量仪器,本身也存在误差。目前,我国三维激光扫描仪检定技术较为薄弱且尚未制定系统的技术规范。本文结合国内外对三维激光扫描仪性能检定的理论方法,设计相应的实验方案,对所用Trimble GX200扫描仪的鉴别率进行检定。     

入射角对VZ-400激光点云测量精度的影响

地面三维激光扫描仪在实际测量工作中,因扫描目标过高,导致激光光束达到截止高度角大小。高入射角将导致激光光斑的变形,使得激光可能落在光班的任何一处,增加了不确定性,损失了点位精度。针对VZ-400扫描仪设计测量方案,通过曲线拟合得到入射角系数与d/h的函数,便于确定监测方案中的最佳扫描距离。