Measurement of sand creep on a flat sand bed using a high‐speed digital camera: Mesoscopic features of creeping grains

The characterization of aeolian sand creep motion remains incomplete. In this study, a top‐view imaging system was constructed in a wind tunnel experiment to record sand creep motion on a flat sand bed. In addition, a set of ‘mesoscopic’ parameters was defined based on the creep trajectory that was reconstructed by a particle tracking algorithm. Statistical results show that the parameters representing the lifespan of the creep motion follow a lognormal distribution, whereas those representing the sideways grain motion deviate from the lognormal distribution. As the wind velocity increases, the sideways motion is strengthened and the lifespan of the creep motion is shortened, indicating a stronger transition from creep to saltation. Furthermore, under a ‘pure rolling’ hypothesis, the creep trajectory can be transformed into two numbers of rolling cycles from the perspectives of space and time. The ratio of the two numbers is useful in identifying the specific mode of the creep motion.     

Modeling the viscous behavior of frozen soil with hypoplasticity

This paper presents a hypoplastic constitutive model for the viscous behavior of frozen soil. The model is composed of a ‘solid’ part and a ‘fluid’ part. The solid part is based on the extended hypoplastic model, and the fluid part is dependent on the second time derivative of strain. The performance of the model is demonstrated by simulating some uniaxial compression tests at different strain rates. Moreover, the model can describe in a unified way the three stages of typical creep tests, that is, primary, secondary, and tertiary stage. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Domainal variations of U–Pb monazite ages and Rb–Sr whole-rock dates in polymetamorphic paragneisses (KTB Drill Core, Germany): influence of strain and deformation mechanisms on isotope systems

Polyphase metamorphic paragneisses from the drill core of the continental deep drilling project (KTB; NW Bohemian Massif) are characterized by peak pressures of about 8 kbar (medium‐P metamorphism) followed by strain accumulation at T >650 °C, initially by dislocation creep and subsequently by diffusion creep. U–Pb monazite ages and Rb–Sr whole‐rock data vary in the dm‐scale, indicating Ordovician and Mid‐Devonian metamorphic events. Such age variations are closely interconnected with dm‐scale domainal variations of microfabrics that indicate different predominant deformation mechanisms. U–Pb monazite age variations dependent on microfabric domains exceed grain‐size‐dependent age variations. In ‘mylonitic domains’ recording high magnitudes of plastic strain, dislocation creep and minor static annealing, monazite yields concordant and near concordant Lower Ordovician U–Pb ages, and the Rb–Sr whole‐rock system shows isotopic disequilibrium at an mm‐scale. In ‘mineral growth/mobilisate domains’, in which diffusive mass transfer was a major strain‐producing mechanism promoting diffusion creep of quartz and feldspar, and in which static recrystallization (annealing) reduced the internal free energy of the strained mineral aggregates, concordant U–Pb ages are Mid‐Devonian. Locally, in such domains, Rb–Sr dates among mm³‐sized whole‐rock slabs reflect post‐Ordovician resetting. In ‘transitional domains’, the U–Pb‐ages are discordant. We conclude that medium‐P metamorphism occurred at 484±2 Ma, and a second metamorphic event at 380–370 Ma (Mid‐Devonian) caused progressive strain in the rocks. Dislocation creep at high rates, even at high temperatures, does not reset the Rb–Sr whole‐rock system, while diffusion creep at low rates and stresses (i.e. low ε/D_eff ratios), static annealing and the presence of intergranular fluids locally assist resetting. At temperatures above 650 °C, diffusive Pb loss did not reset Ordovician U–Pb monazite ages, and in domains of overall high imposed strain rates and stresses, resetting was not assisted by dynamic recrystallization/crystal plasticity. However, during diffusion creep at low rates, Pb loss by dissolution and precipitation (‘recrystallization’) of monazite produces discordance and Devonian‐concordant U–Pb monazite ages. Hence, resetting of these isotope systems reflects neither changes of temperature nor, directly, the presence or absence of strain.     

Dynamic response of a circular lined tunnel with an imperfect interface subjected to cylindrical P-waves

The analytic solutions for the dynamic response of a circular lined tunnel with an imperfect interface subjected to cylindrical P-waves are presented in the paper. The wave function expansion method was used and the imperfect interface was modeled with a spring model. The interface separating the liner from the surrounding rock was considered to be homogeneous imperfect. The dynamic stress concentration factors (DSCF) of the rock and liner were evaluated and discussed. The effects of incident wave’s frequency, bonding conditions and distance between the wave source and the tunnel were examined. The results showed that the low-frequency incident wave leads to a higher DSCF than the high-frequency incident wave. The bonding conditions have a great effect on the dynamic response of the lined tunnel. When the bond is extremely weak, the resonance scattering phenomenon can be observed. When the distance between the wave source and the tunnel, depending on frequency of the incident wave, is considered as large, the cylindrical wave can be treated as a plane wave. Limiting cases were considered and good agreement with the solutions available in the literature was obtained.     

Parametric sensitivity analysis of coupled mechanical consolidation and contaminant transport through clay barriers

In this paper, an extensive parametric sensitivity analysis of coupled consolidation and solute transport in composite landfill liner systems has been undertaken. The analysis incorporates results of more than 3000 simulations for various combinations of barrier thickness, waste loading rate, initial void ratio, compression index, hydraulic conductivity and dispersion coefficient. However, it is noted that to limit the extent of the study a constant coefficient of consolidation is assumed in the analysis presented here, though this assumption is easily relaxed. Results of the parametric sensitivity analysis are succinctly presented using dimensionless plots, which allow the comparison of results for a large number of parameter values, and so the clear identification of the most important determinants on contaminant transport through the liner system. The dimensionless plots demonstrate a pessimum (for which the ‘breakthrough time’ is minimised). Numerical results reveal that in cases of extreme liner compressibility an order of magnitude reduction in contaminant transit time may arise due to coupling between solute transport and consolidation, while for barriers of low compressibility and porosity (such as well-engineered composite compacted clay landfill liners), it is found that the contaminant transit time may still be reduced by more than 30%. The numerical results suggest that the use of coupled consolidation–contaminant transport models are sometimes required for informed and conservative landfill liner design.     

基于应变软化指标的岩石非线性蠕变模型

研究并提出一种以应变软化指标为基础的岩石非线性蠕变模型。首先,基于岩石三轴压缩试验结果,分析提出一种峰后应变软化指标R1来描述岩石峰后力学参数软化与塑性变形间的关系。接着,通过分析加速蠕变阶段与峰后段的联系,建立加速蠕变应变软化指标R2,并以此为基础构建非线性黏塑性体。然后,将其与Hook体和Kelvin元件串联,组建非线性蠕变模型,并将模型嵌入ABAQUS有限元程序。最后,针对砂岩和泥岩三轴蠕变试验建立数值模型,模拟曲线与试验曲线吻合良好,说明所建模型适用于硬岩/软岩加速蠕变现象的模拟。其中,参数 对加速蠕变曲线形态起调节作用,显示模型模拟脆性?延性流变破坏的特点。另外,模型参数均可由常规压缩破坏试验以及蠕变试验确定,易于获取。     

A viscoplastic model including anisotropic damage for the time dependent behaviour of rock

This paper presents a new constitutive model for the time dependent mechanical behaviour of rock which takes into account both viscoplastic behaviour and evolution of damage with respect to time. This model is built by associating a viscoplastic constitutive law to the damage theory. The main characteristics of this model are the account of a viscoplastic volumetric strain (i.e. contractancy and dilatancy) as well as the anisotropy of damage. The latter is described by a second rank tensor. Using this model, it is possible to predict delayed rupture by determining time to failure, in creep tests for example. The identification of the model parameters is based on experiments such as creep tests, relaxation tests and quasi‐static tests. The physical meaning of these parameters is discussed and comparisons with lab tests are presented. The ability of the model to reproduce the delayed failure observed in tertiary creep is demonstrated as well as the sensitivity of the mechanical response to the rate of loading. The model could be used to simulate the evolution of the excavated damage zone around underground openings. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于西原模型的变参数蠕变方程

岩石材料的蠕变具有明显的非线性特征,在蠕变模型中考虑蠕变参数随应力、时间等因素而变化是解决非线性蠕变问题的方法之一。试验已经证实,应力、时间及渗流等外部条件会引起岩石某些力学参数的改变,因此,将蠕变参数视为变量符合岩石材料的本质属性。以西原蠕变模型为基础,研究了各蠕变参数与应力及时间的关系。根据试验结果,通过非线性最小二乘法从蠕变试验数据中求出不同应力作用下不同时刻的各个蠕变参数,再根据参数随应力、时间的分布规律经非线性拟合得到各蠕变参数与应力及时间的表达式,进而可得到变参数的蠕变方程。蠕变参数的变化是岩石非线性特征的充分体现,从损伤力学的角度来讲,蠕变参数的变化反映了岩石内部损伤不断加剧、累积,材料特性不断劣化的演变过程。     

Modelling the time‐dependent behaviour of granular material with hypoplasticity

This paper presents a constitutive model for time‐dependent behaviour of granular material. The model consists of 2 parts representing the inviscid and viscous behaviour of granular materials. The inviscid part is a rate‐independent hypoplastic constitutive model. The viscous part is represented by a rheological model, which contains a high‐order term denoting the strain acceleration. The proposed model is validated by simulating some element tests on granular soils. Our model is able to model not only the non‐isotach behaviour but also the 3 creep stages, namely, primary, secondary, and tertiary creep, in a unified way.     

A coupled finite element–rigid block method for transient analysis of rock caverns

A coupled finite element–rigid block model for the transient analysis of caverns in jointed media is presented. This coupling permits the modelling of lined openings in a jointed rock mass as well as the propagation of stress waves to the cavern. Both the finite element and the rigid block algorithms employ explicit time integration; an efficient, stable scheme is developed for coupling the two algorithms. Two numerical examples are given: one is a simple validation, the second is a representation of a lined cavern in a sparsely jointed medium.     

Reservoir induced seismicity—a new model

Deficiencies of different existing models on ‘Reservoir Induced Seismicity’ have been discussed and a new mathematical model, which enhances a better understanding of triggering mechanism in terms of changes in effective stresses, in situ stresses and water level variations, has been discussed in this paper. In the model fractured rock is simulated by a fluid-filled elastic material subject to Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion. The model has been found to be capable of responding effectively to site specific attributes. It can recognize and explain the phenomenon of time lag observed in several actual cases. It is also capable of simulating stabilization of rock–reservoir system after a period of activities that follow the initial stage of filling. One dimensional and two dimensional, isotropic and anisotropic cases have been analysed and the model predictions have been found to agree qualitatively with the field observations.     

Heated mine room and pillar-secondary creep response

Heated salt mine room and pillar simulations have been performed to provide information regarding parameters affecting room closure rates to designers of radioactive waste isolation facilities. A coupled secondary creep and heat transfer formulation with large strain capabilities was used to assess the effects of variations in creep law parameters, thermal properties, imposed boundary conditions, temporal integration and meshing resolution on room closure rates. Results indicate that the greatest effect results from variations in parameters appearing in the creep constitutive equation.     

Stone column effectiveness in soils with creep: a numerical study

While it is well established that vibro stone columns reduce primary settlement and improve bearing capacity, their effect on creep compression has largely been overlooked to date. However, with increasing pressure to develop marginal sites underlain by soft organic soils, the effect of ground treatment on creep is an important emerging issue in geotechnical engineering. In this paper, a series of axisymmetric unit cell analyses have been carried out using the PLAXIS 2D finite element program in conjunction with the Soft Soil Creep (SSC) model. Examination of the evolution of settlement improvement factor with time has indicated that the presence of creep leads to a lower ‘total’ improvement factor than would be obtained for primary consolidation settlement alone. Separate ‘primary’ and ‘creep’ improvement factors have also been derived; the latter are much lower than the former, but are nevertheless greater than unity. Creep results in a stress transfer process; as the soil creeps, vertical stress is transferred from the soil to the stone column. The additional load carried by the column induces additional yielding and shear-plane formation in closely-spaced columns. The additional increment of stress transferred to the already yielded column reduces its efficacy.     

The Würmian Late-glacial in Iowland Switzerland

A synthesis is provided of Late-glacial (14-9 ka BP) environmental changes in lowland Switzerland (the ‘Swiss Plateau’). The chronology of deglaciation and subsequent developments in vegetation cover in the area are summarised. The sequence of climatic variations experienced in the region during the Late-glacial is then described and a curve representing the main palaeotemperature variations is presented.     

Visco-Plastic Behaviour around Advancing Tunnels in Squeezing Rock

Summary  The visco-plastic behaviour of rocks plays a relevant role in the tunnelling works, especially for deep tunnels subjected to large initial stresses for which squeezing conditions may develop. A rheological model is discussed that accounts for visco-elastic (primary) and visco-plastic (secondary) contributions to rock creep. The effects of tertiary creep are included in the model by way of a gradual mechanical damage governed by the cumulated visco-plastic strains. The parameters of the intact rock are first identified based on laboratory test results presented in the literature. Then, after scaling them to those of the rock mass, the potential applicability of the model is tested through axisymmetric and plane strain finite element analyses of the full face excavation of a deep circular tunnel. The results are discussed with particular reference to the short term redistribution of stresses around the opening and to its convergence. The analyses show the relevant influence of tertiary creep on the tunnel closure. In addition, those based on an axisymmetric scheme turn out to be crucial for the correct long term prediction of the interaction between the rock mass and the supporting structure of the opening.     

Thermodynamic‐based model for coupling temperature‐dependent viscoelastic,viscoplastic, and viscodamage constitutive behavior of asphalt mixtures

Based on the continuum damage mechanics, a general and comprehensive thermodynamic‐based framework for coupling the temperature‐dependent viscoelastic, viscoplastic, and viscodamage behaviors of bituminous materials is presented. This general framework derives systematically Schapery‐type nonlinear viscoelasticity, Perzyna‐type viscoplasticity, and a viscodamage model analogous to the Perzyna‐type viscoplasticity. The resulting constitutive equations are implemented in the well‐known finite element code Abaqus via the user material subroutine UMAT. A systematic procedure for identifying the model parameters is discussed. Finally, the model is validated by comparing the model predictions with a comprehensive set of experimental data on hot mix asphalt that include creep‐recovery, creep, uniaxial constant strain rate, and repeated creep‐recovery tests in both tension and compression over a range of temperatures, stress levels, and strain rates. Comparisons between model predictions and experimental measurements show that the presented constitutive model is capable of predicting the nonlinear behavior of asphaltic mixes under different loading conditions. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Microstructure and fabric development in ice: Lessons learned from in situ experiments and implications for understanding rock evolution

In this contribution we present a review of the evolution of microstructures and fabric in ice. Based on the review we show the potential use of ice as an analogue for rocks by considering selected examples that can be related to quartz-rich rocks. Advances in our understanding of the plasticity of ice have come from experimental investigations that clearly show that plastic deformation of polycrystalline ice is initially produced by basal slip. Interaction of dislocations play an essential role for dynamic recrystallization processes involving grain nucleation and grain-boundary migration during the steady-state flow of ice. To support this review we describe deformation in polycrystalline ‘standard’ water-ice and natural-ice samples, summarize other experiments involving bulk samples and use in situ plane-strain deformation experiments to illustrate the link between microstructure and fabric evolution, rheological response and dominant processes. Most terrestrial ice masses deform at low shear stresses by grain-size-insensitive creep with a stress exponent (n ≤ 3). However, from experimental observations it is shown that the distribution of plastic activity producing the microstructure and fabric is initially dominated by grain-boundary migration during hardening (primary creep), followed by dynamic recrystallization during transient creep (secondary creep) involving new grain nucleation, with further cycles of grain growth and nucleation resulting in near steady-state creep (tertiary creep). The microstructural transitions and inferred mechanism changes are a function of local and bulk variations in strain energy (i.e. dislocation densities) with surface grain-boundary energy being secondary, except in the case of static annealing. As there is a clear correspondence between the rheology of ice and the high-temperature deformation dislocation creep regime of polycrystalline quartz, we suggest that lessons learnt from ice deformation can be used to interpret polycrystalline quartz deformation. Different to quartz, ice allows experimental investigations at close to natural strain rate, and through in-situ experiments offers the opportunity to study the dynamic link between microstructural development, rheology and the identification of the dominant processes.     

A cyclic elastoplastic-viscoplastic constitutive model for soils

An elastoplastic-viscoplastic constitutive model for soils is presented in this study, based on an original approach concerning viscous modelling. In this approach, the viscous behaviour is defined by internal viscous variables and a viscous yield surface. The model has been developed from a basic elastoplastic model (CJS model) by considering an additional viscous mechanism. The evolution of the viscous yield surface is governed by a particular hardening called ‘viscous hardening’. This model is able to explain the time-dependent behaviour of soils such as creep (primary, secondary and un-drained creep rupture), stress relaxation and strain rate effects in static and cyclic loadings. The existing problems in the classical elasto-viscoplastic models related to the plasticity failure, the rapid loading and the cyclic loading are solved in the proposed model. The physical meanings and the identification strategy of model parameters are clearly given. The validation on certain triaxial test results and the simulation of cyclic triaxial test indicate the capacity of this model in prediction of time-dependent behaviour of clayey soils.     

A FORMULATION OF FULLY COUPLED THERMAL–HYDRAULIC–MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED POROUS MEDIA—NUMERICAL APPROACH

The theoretical aspects of fully coupled thermohydromechanical behaviour of saturated porous media are presented. The non-linear behaviour of soil skeleton is assumed. A new concept called ‘thermal void ratio state surface’ is introduced to include thermal effects, and the stress state level influence on volume changes. The fluid phase flows according to Darcy's law and energy transport is assumed to follow Fourier's law classically. Variation of water permeability, water and solid unit weight due to thermal effects and pore pressure changes are included. A finite element package is developed based on final matrix form obtained from discretization of integral form of field equations by finite element method and integration in time. A very good agreement between the theoretical predictions and the experimental results was obtained for the several simple problems proposed by other authors. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mechanical Response of Lined and Unlined Heated Drifts

Summary Approximate relations are developed to determine the steady stresses and displacements that may develop in unlined and lined drifts heated above ambient, as representative of conditions in a nuclear waste repository. For a series of parallel, unlined drifts, radial convergence due solely to thermal effects is everywhere null at early-times; at late times it is a maximum inward at springline, and an equivalent maximum outward at crown and invert. Support pressures and hoop stresses are evaluated for a flexible liner placed in intimate contact with the drift wall, following excavation, where a full slip condition is applied at the drift-liner interface. For rock mass moduli of similar order to, or smaller than, the liner modulus, hoop stresses and support pressures are shown insensitive to rock mass parameters. Surprisingly, liner stresses are strongly controlled by liner modulus, liner Poisson ratio, liner thermal expansion coefficient, and instantaneous liner temperature, and only weakly by rock mass modulus. Response is shown independent of thermal expansion coefficient of the rock mass, and temperature distribution beyond the drift wall. The “misfit” expansion of the liner in the drift cavity controls liner stresses that rise linearly with the temperature of the liner, alone. Importantly, the results demonstrate the potential to control magnitudes of thermal stresses by the incorporation of compressible elements within the liner, or within the blocking or backfill behind the liner. Although the results are partly conditioned by the assumptions of a fully flexible liner and full slip conditions at the drift-liner interface, they serve to define the important parametric dependencies in the mechanical response of heated drifts.