A soil-water flux sensor and its use for field studies of transfer processes in surface soil

A soil-water flux sensor was developed, which determines the flux value from the difference between downstream and upstream temperatures at some distances from an artificial heat source. It can detect flux values ranging from several mm hr.⁻¹ to as small as 0.01 mm hr.⁻¹. Design and calibration of the sensor are described.

The sensor was applied to the field studies of transfer processes in a surface soil, including rainwater infiltration, upward soil-water flow during evapotranspiration, and their effects on the water table level. Cl⁻ accumulation in the surface soil is discussed on the basis of upward water flux and Cl⁻ content observed.     

Water and solute movement in a coarse-textured water-repellent field soil

Unstable water flow in water-repellent unsaturated soils can significantly affect the processes of infiltration and soil water redistribution. A field experiment was carried out to study the effect of water-repellency on water and bromide movement in a coarse-textured soil in the southwestern part of The Netherlands. The field data were analyzed using a relatively simple numerical model based on the standard Richards' equation for unsaturated water flow and the Fickian-based convection-dispersion equation for solute transport. Water-repellency was accounted for by multiplying the water content and the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil with F, a factor equal to the volumetric fraction of soil occupied by preferential flow paths resulting from the unstable flow process. The good comparison of simulated and measured bromide concentrations suggests that the model provides a viable method for simulating unstable water flow in water-repellent soils.     

High precision tracing of soil and sediment movement using fluorescent tracers at hillslope scale

Generating high resolution spatial information on the movement of sediment in response to soil erosion remains a major research challenge. In this paper we present a new tracing method that utilises LED (light emitting diode) light to induce fluorescence in a sand-sized tracer, which is then detected, using a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensor in a commercial digital camera, at mm-resolution without the need for removal of soil material. First, we detail two complementary, but independent, methods for quantifying the concentration of tracer from images: particle counting and an intensity based method. We show that both methods can produce highly resolved estimates of particle concentrations under laboratory conditions. Secondly, we demonstrate the power of the method for collecting spatial information on soil redistribution by tillage, with mm precision, over an approximately 50 m hillslope and vertically down the soil profile. Our work demonstrates the potential to collect quantitative time-resolved data about soil movement without disturbing the soil surface which is being studied, and with it the possibility to parameterise or evaluate dynamic distributed soil erosion models or to undertake fundamental research focused on particle movement that has been impossible to conduct previously. © 2018 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.     

Stochastic particle based models for suspended particle movement in surface flows

Modeling of suspended sediment particle movement in surface water can be achieved by stochastic particle tracking model approaches.In this paper,different mathematical forms of particle tracking models are introduced to describe particle movement under various flow conditions,i.e.,the stochastic diffusion process,stochastic jump process,and stochastic jump diffusion process.While the stochastic diffusion process can be used to represent the stochastic movement of suspended particles in turbulent flows,the stochastic jump and the stochastic jump diffusion processes can be used to describe suspended particle movement in the occurrences of a sequence of extreme flows.An extreme flow herein is defined as a hydrologic flow event or a hydrodynamic flow phenomenon with a low probability of occurrence and a high impact on its ambient flow environment.In this paper,the suspended sediment particle is assumed to immediately follow the extreme flows in the jump process（i.e.the time lag between the flow particle and the sediment particle in extreme flows is considered negligible）.In the proposed particle tracking models,a random term mainly caused by fluid eddy motions is modeled as a Wiener process,while the random occurrences of a sequence of extreme flows can be modeled as a Poisson process.The frequency of occurrence of the extreme flows in the proposed particle tracking model can be explicitly accounted for by the Poisson process when evaluating particle movement.The ensemble mean and variance of particle trajectory can be obtained from the proposed stochastic models via simulations.The ensemble mean and variance of particle velocity are verified with available data.Applicability of the proposed stochastic particle tracking models for sediment transport modeling is also discussed.     

Measurement and prediction of water movement in a field soil: The matrix-macropore dichotomy

The saturated and unsaturated flow properties of a field soil under two tillage treatments were obtained with ponded rings and disc permeameters of dissimilar radii. No difference was observed between tillage treatments but the flow properties displayed a distinct macropore-matrix dichotomy, with K changing by an order of magnitude as ψ₀ went from just - 30 mm to zero. Accurate prediction of time to incipient ponding was achieved using both numerical and analytical models calibrated with field hydraulic properties that were characteristic of the soil matrix. However, extension of the numerical model to the prediction of the wetting front development under non-ponded conditions was less accurate due to localized preferred wetting It is hypothesized that at this site, localized concentration of rainfall and hence, preferred wetting, May, occur by interception and stemflow associated with lines of standing stubble present in the original seeding slots.     

Calculation of elapsed decimal time for tracing studies

Calculation of time of travel from tracing studies in hydrologic systems is critical to establishing pollutant arrival times from points of inflow to points outflow, calculating subsurface flow velocities, and determining other important transport parameters such as longitudinal dispersion. In addition, breakthrough curve modeling demands accurate time of travel calculations if model results are to have any realistic meaning. However, accurate time of travel calculations are very difficult for long tracer tests in which sampling schedules are not consistent, or when there are major disruptions such as may occur when adverse weather conditions cause automatic sampling equipment to fail. Long and inconsistent sampling times may be accurately converted to decimal times of travel by converting the conventionally recorded Coordinated Universal Time for sampling date and time event to a baseline time standard. By converting to a baseline time standard, all recorded dates and times are linked to the established baseline standard so that each succeeding sampling date and time are correctly determined relative to the previous sampling date and time and to the injection date and time.     

纵波质点的运动与界面的反射

在原有波动学的基础上,通过对波传播质点的运动和作用进行研究,提出了波传播的力学作用不仅有因形变产生的应力,还存在着另一种由速度决定的不同形式的力——“动作用力”.动作用力才是波传播的根本动力.由“动作用力"和形变应力确立波的动力学方程,由这个方程,又可确定质点的运动规律.质点在波传播中一般并不作弹性振动,质点沿一个方向运动进行能量传递后,只作微弱的回复运动.质点这种运动特点才符合能量守恒.质点这种运动特点决定不同的界面性状有不同形态的反射波.     

Development of a portable field rainfall simulator for use in hillside vineyard runoff and erosion studies

An inexpensive, mobile field rainfall simulator and runoff plot frame were developed for use on hillside vineyards. The simulator framework and components were lightweight, readily available and easily manageable such that they can be handled by one person during transport, set–up and operation. The vineyard rainfall simulator was simpler than many of the machines in recent use for similar studies, yet offered equal or improved performance for small‐plot studies. The system developed consistent sized 2·58 mm raindrops at intensities ranging from 20 to 90 mm/h. The average distribution uniformity coefficient at an intensity of 60 mm/h was 91·7%, with a deviation of only 2·2%. This coefficient was similar to the range reported for a more complex rotating disk simulator, and was notably greater than that obtained for other similar devices. The system water capacity of 40 l allowed for 1‐h storm durations at 60 mm/h, usually sufficient time for commencement of erosion and runoff. The runoff plot frame was designed to be quickly installed, and to discourage sediment deposition in the routing of runoff to collect containers. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stable carbon isotope evidence for tracing the diet of the host Hepialus larva of Cordyceps sinensis in the Tibetan Plateau

Two types of Hepialus larvae with different diets were distinguished in the Sejila Mountain,Tibetan Plateau based on the stable carbon isotope data of the host Hepialus larva of Cordyceps sinensis and its closely adjacent tender plant roots and humus fractions.Type I is the larva chiefly fed by soil humus,and characterized by the δ 13C values of -22.6‰ to-23.4‰,and more than -23.4‰ in its heads.Type II is the larva chiefly fed by tender plant roots,and characterized by the δ 13C values of-24.6‰ to -27.6‰,an...     

Laboratory and field studies of the accumulation of inorganic mercury by the mussel Mytilus edulis (L.)

Laboratory and field experiments have been used to indicate the relative importance of mercury in dissolved and particulate phases as sources of mercury to mussels in a contaminated estuary. Laboratory experiments have demonstrated that mussels can accumulate inorganic mercury from sea-water, phytoplankton, and suspended sediment. Following exposure, concentrations were normally higher in the gills, digestive gland, and kidneys than in the adductor muscle, mantle, and foot, and the distribution of mercury between organs varied according to source. The relative bioavailabilities of inorganic mercury in water, phytoplankton, and sediment are estimated to be in the ratios 10:5:1. Mussels exposed for four weeks in a mercury-contaminated estuary accumulated primarily inorganic mercury from suspended sediment at the seaward end of the estuary, but further upstream uptake from solution and of methylmercury compounds were more important.     

Velocity and concentration profiles of particle movement in sheet flows

Sheet flows occur widely in natural free-surface flows including rivers in flood, tidal estuaries and coastal waters in storm conditions when bed shear stress becomes sufficiently high. Particle volumetric concentration in sheet flows normally follows a linear distribution with the Rouse [Rouse H. Modern conceptions of the mechanics of fluid turbulence. Trans ASCE, 1937;102:463–543] distribution applicable in the dilute water column above the sheet-flow layer. However, a well-verified formula for determining particle velocity distribution in sheet flows is still lacking. This paper presents formulas to describe the particle velocity profile in steady or oscillatory sheet flows. They compare well with measured data. In particular, the novel formula for determining the particle velocity at the top of bedload–sediment-dominated sublayer in sheet flows is also well verified with measured data.     

Laboratory and field assessment of an infrared turbidity probe and its response to particle size and variation in suspended sediment concentration

Abstract

Using a combination of laboratory and field experiments, the performance of a Partech Instruments Ltd IR40-C active head suspended solids sensor has been tested with respect to changing particle size distribution and rapid variation in suspended sediment transport rate. The sensor, which utilizes light attenuation in the infrared waveband, has several advantages both over visible light optical designs and over nuclear or optical back-scatter (OBS) devices. Three sets of laboratory tests are reported: calibration experiments using estuarine, pro-glacial and control media; flume simulations of pulsed sediment supply at a variety of frequencies, concentrations and ambient flow velocities; and simple tests for the effect of air bubbles within the sensor light path. The sensor was also deployed in the field, together with an electromagnetic current meter, to monitor flow and suspended sediment transport fluctuations in the turbulent frequency range. Although the sensor performed well with respect to drift, noise and stability of calibration, significant variation occurred with respect to suspensions of differing particle sizes. A simple correction procedure involving the weighting of sensor output by specific particle surface area may enable comparison of turbidity data from different locations and times, and with standard calibration solutions. At high frequencies, the sensor is capable of resolving fluctuations in the transport rate to c. 0.5 s, which appears to correspond well to field observations of significant velocity fluctuation and transport ‘events’ and is comparable with results obtained using OBS devices. However, the resolution of transport fluctuations is again dependent upon particle characteristics, and the presence of air bubbles in the flow whose size approximates the path width of the sensor may mimic a fluctuating transport process. Further interpretation of high frequency measurement awaits research into the fundamentals of rapidly varying flow and sediment transport characteristics.     

Simulation of individual particle movement in a gravel streambed

A two‐dimensional simulation model of travel distances of individual particles in a gravel‐bed river is presented. The model is based on a number of rules, which include particle size, entrainment, trajectory, distance of movement and entrapment. Particle interactions are controlled by resistance fields defined about each obstacle and critical elevation defined in the model. Resistance fields, particle dropping and critical elevation rules control particle interactions. The interaction rules cause the particles to develop pebble clusters, stone cells and transverse structures (transverse ribs). The simulated travel distances of individual particles are consistent with reported field results. Individual particle travel distances were simulated using two different models; one without interactions between the individual particles and the stationary bed and one with interactions. The case without interactions demonstrates the random nature of sediment transport, and narrow ranges of travel distances. Wider ranges of travel distances, similar to those for natural situations, were obtained for the cases with interactions. The more intense the interaction between the mobile stones and the stationary ones, the wider the range of distances of travel for a given particle size. Modelling the mean travel distance yielded a result similar to that published previously, which was based on empirical data. Well developed bed‐surface structures were obtained for relatively poorly sorted sediment with intense interactions between particles. Transverse structures developed when relatively large particles were allowed to move. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Thermal enhancement of natural magnetism as a tool for tracing eroded soil

Determining sources, quantities and travel distances of eroding soil is of increasing importance given its impact on‐ and off‐site, the sediment‐associated transport of nutrients, metals and micro‐organisms and the ongoing need to provide data for soil erosion model development and validation. Many soil tracers have been developed; however, most comprise foreign materials, such as fluorescent beads and rare earth oxides, which cast doubts on the validity of tracing results given their different physical characteristics. To avoid these problems, we have investigated the potential of soil, which has been heated under reducing conditions to enhance its ferrimagnetic content, as a soil erosion tracer; while the technique has been used successfully to trace river sediment it has not been successfully applied to soil erosion studies. For a suite of 16 magnetic concentration‐dependent properties, values were found to be significantly greater, by at least one order of magnitude, after heating, both for the bulk soil and nine individual particle size fractions. Individual size fractions could be differentiated using two different magnetic properties, thus illustrating the technique's potential to provide information on particle size‐specific erosion. Soil box experiments demonstrated the potential for both in situ measurement of magnetic susceptibility and laboratory measurement of the magnetic properties of eroded sediment, to trace and quantify soil erosion. Thus, heated soil, with artificially‐enhanced ferrimagnetic properties, is successfully demonstrated to have great potential as a size‐specific, cost‐effective and representative soil erosion tracer. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Use of NADP archive samples to determine the isotope composition of precipitation: characterizing the meteoric input function for use in ground water studies

Stable oxygen and hydrogen isotopes have been used in ground water studies to investigate recharge, mixing, ground water/surface water interaction, advective-diffusive transport, paleohydrogeologic interactions and to estimate ground water ages. Such studies require that the isotopic composition of precipitation be known, as precipitation is a major input to ground water and surface water systems. As oxygen-18 and deuterium data for precipitation are lacking across much of the United States, there is need to establish additional local meteoric water lines as isotope input functions across the region, as well as to develop better understanding of the isotopic climate linkages that control oxygen and hydrogen isotope ratios in precipitation. In the absence of long-term monitoring stations, one possible solution to this problem is to determine the delta 18O and delta 2H values of precipitation using archive samples collected at monitoring stations managed by the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP). This study describes and interprets the seasonal delta 18O and delta 2H composition of archived precipitation samples collected in eastern Nebraska near the town of Mead during the years 1992-1994. Values for delta 18O range from -23.6 to -0.7@1000. Values for delta 2H range from -172 to 0@1000. Yearly arithmetic mean delta 18O and delta 2H values for the Mead station are -8.1@1000 and -53@1000, respectively. Weighted yearly means for delta 18O and delta 2H were -7.4@1000 and -48@1000, respectively. Mead values show a strong isotopic enrichment between winter and summer precipitation, and a strong delta 18O-T correlation (r2 = 0.91) for mean monthly values of about 0.5@1000 per degree Celsius. The local meteoric water line for the Mead site is delta 2H = 7.40 delta 18O + 7.32. Deuterium excess values suggest that most of the moisture across the region is derived primarily from a Gulf of Mexico source. The results of this study demonstrate that in the absence of long-term monitoring stations such as those operated globally by the International Atomic Energy Association, NADP archive samples can be used to determine the isotopic composition of precipitation, to characterize the local meteoric water line and establish the various climatic relationships, and define the meteoric input function for use in ground water studies.     

Observations of particle movement in a monitoring well using the colloidal borescope

The colloidal borescope consists of a set of lenses and miniature video cameras capable of observing natural particles in monitoring wells. Based on field observations of these particles, it appears possible to measure in situ groundwater velocity in a well bore. Field observations have shown that directional measurements using the colloidal borescope are generally in good agreement with expected flow directions. However, the magnitude of flow velocity is higher compared with values based on conventional test methods. High relative flow velocities, even after correction factors have been applied to compensate for well bore effects, are believed to be due to preferential flow zones in the surrounding aquifer. Low flow zones exhibit swirling multidirectional flow that does not allow for a linear velocity measurement. Consequently, groundwater flow velocities measured by the colloidal borescope in heterogeneous aquifers will be biased toward the maximum velocity values present in the aquifer. A series of laboratory experiments was conducted to assess the reliability of the instrument. Based on this work, a seepage velocity correction factor ( ) of 1–4 was found for quantifying groundwater seepage velocity in the adjacent aquifer from observations in a well bore. Laboratory measurements also indicate that preferential flow in the surrounding aquifer dominates flow in the well. Results of this work suggest the possibility of quantifying higher-flow velocities associated with preferential flow zones in the subsurface.     

单孔同位素稀释示踪法测定地下水渗流速度、流向的技术发展

地下水渗流速度、流向不仅是地下水渗流场研究中两个重要的动态参数,而且是测定含水层渗透系数、渗流量等水文地质参数的主要参量.本文结合前人研究成果,系统梳理了应用放射性同位素测定地下水渗流速度、流向的技术方法与工作流程等,其中比较详细的分析了井孔中有垂向流和无垂向流情况下,应用放射性同位素单孔稀释法测定渗流速度的方法与适用条件,旨在为广泛开展地下水渗流场参数的野外观测与研究提供可行的技术途径.作为一种地下水渗流场参数定量研究的技术方法,单孔稀释示踪法在与渗流场研究有关的水库诱发地震机理、地下流体对构造活动的影响过程、地下流体强震异常解释、地震地下流体异常落实等方面具有广泛的应用前景.     

Intercomparison of soil pore water extraction methods for stable isotope analysis

Measurements of δ²H and δ¹⁸O composition of pore waters in saturated and unsaturated soil samples are routinely performed in hydrological studies. A variety of in‐situ and lab‐based pore water extraction methods for the analysis of the stable isotopes of water now exist. While some have been used for decades (e.g. cryogenic vacuum extraction) others are relatively new, such as direct vapour equilibration or the microwave extraction technique. Despite their broad range of application, a formal and comprehensive intercomparison of soil water extraction methods for stable isotope analysis is lacking and long overdue. Here we present an intercomparison among five commonly used lab‐based pore water extraction techniques (high pressure mechanical squeezing, centrifugation, direct vapour equilibration, microwave extraction, and cryogenic extraction). We applied these extraction methods to two physicochemically different soil types that were dried and rewetted with water of known isotopic composition at three different water contents. Our results showed that the extraction approach can have a significant effect on pore water isotopic composition as all methods exhibited significant deviations from the spiked reference water, depending secondarily on the soil type and soil water content. Most pronounced, cryogenic water extraction showed large deviations from the spiked reference water, whereas mechanical squeezing and centrifugation provided results closest to the spiked water for both soil types. We also compared results for each extraction method – where liquid water was obtained – on both an OA‐ICOS and IRMS. Differences between these two analytical instruments were negligible for these organic compound‐free waters. We suggest that users of soil water extraction approaches carefully choose an extraction technique that is suitable for the specific research question, adapted to the dominant soil type and water content of the study. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Laboratory and theoretical evaluation of impact of packing density,particle shape,and uniformity coefficient on erodibility of coarse-grained soil particles

Sedimentation – including erosion, transport, and deposition of coarse-grained particles – is a primary and growing environmental, engineering, and agricultural issue around the world. Soil erosion occurs when the hydrodynamic force induced by flowing water exceeds the geotechnical resistance of soils, as measured by critical shear stress for initiation of soil-particle motion. Even though various quantitative methods have been suggested with respect to different types of soil, the most widely accepted formula to estimate critical shear stress for coarse-grained soil is a direct function of the median grain size of the soil particles; however, the erosion resistance of soils also varies with other geotechnical properties, such as packing density, particle shape, and uniformity coefficient. Thus, in this study, a combined rolling–lift model for particle detachment was derived based on theoretical analysis. A series of experimental flume tests were conducted with specimens prepared with standard soil types, as well as laboratory-prepared mixtures of coarse-grained soil to validate the theoretical model and determine the effect of other geotechnical properties on the erosion characteristics of coarse grains, coupled with the effect of median particle size. The results indicated that the median grain size is the primary variable determining the resistance of coarse grains, but the critical shear stress also varies with the packing density of the soil matrix. In addition, angular particles show more erosion resistance than rounded particles, and the erosion potential of a soil decreased when the grain is well graded (higher value of uniformity coefficient). Additionally, regression analysis was performed to quantify the effect of each parameter on the critical shear stress of coarse grains. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hydrogen and oxygen isotope studies of metamorphic fluid-rock interactions in the Dabie Mountains

Hydrogen and oxygen isotope studies were carried out on mineral separates from high to ultrahigh pressure metamorphic rocks at Huangzhen and Shuanghe in the eastern Dabie Mountains, East China. The δ¹⁸O values of eclogites cover a wide range of −5‰ to+9‰, but the δD values of micas fall within a narrow range of −85% to −70‰. Both equilibrium and disequilibrium oxygen isotope fractionations were observed between quartz and the other minerals, with reversed fractionations between omphacite and garnet in some eclogite samples. The δ¹⁸ O values of −5‰ to −1‰ for some of the eclogites represent the oxygen isotope compositions of their protoliths which underwent meteoric water-rock interaction prior to plate subduction. The preservation of oxygen isotope heterogeneity in the eclogites implies a channelized flow of fluids during progressive metamorphism caused by rapid subduction. Retrograde metamorphism has caused oxygen and hydrogen isotope disequilibria between some of the minerals, but the fluid for retrograde reactions was internally buffered in the stable isotope compositions. Project supported by the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology (Grant No. 95-Pre-39), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 49794042, 49473173 and 49453003) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. KZ951-A1-401-5)