Kinematic hardening plasticity formulation of small strain behaviour of soils

An objective of this paper is to demonstrate that the small strain model developed by the authors can be incorporated into the conventional kinematic hardening plasticity framework to predict pre‐failure defor mations. The constitutive model described in this paper is constituted by three elliptical yield surfaces in triaxial stress space. Two inner surfaces are rotated ellipses of the same shape, representing the boundaries of the linear elastic and small strain regions, while the third surface is the modified Cam clay large‐scale yield surface. Within the linear elastic region, the soil behaviour is elastic with cross‐coupling between the shear and volumetric stress–strain components. Within the small strain region, the soil behaviour is elasto‐plastic, described by the kinematic hardening rule with an infinite number of loading surfaces defined by the incremental energy criterion. Within the large‐scale yield surface, the soil behaviour is elasto‐plastic, described by kinematic and isotropic hardening of the small strain region boundary. Since the yield surfaces have different shapes, the uniqueness of the plastic loading condition imposes a restriction on the ratio between their semi‐diameters. The model requires 12 parameters, which can be determined from a single consolidated undrained triaxial compression test. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Thermoplasticity and strain localization in transversely isotropic materials based on anisotropic critical state plasticity

Geomaterials such as soils and rocks are inherently anisotropic and sensitive to temperature changes caused by various internal and external processes. They are also susceptible to strain localization in the form of shear bands when subjected to critical loads. We present a thermoplastic framework for modeling coupled thermomechanical response and for predicting the inception of a shear band in a transversely isotropic material using the general framework of critical state plasticity and the specific framework of an anisotropic modified Cam–Clay model. The formulation incorporates anisotropy in both elastic and plastic responses under the assumption of infinitesimal deformation. The model is first calibrated using experimental data from triaxial tests to demonstrate its capability in capturing anisotropy in the mechanical response. Subsequently, stress‐point simulations of strain localization are carried out under two different conditions, namely, isothermal localization and adiabatic localization. The adiabatic formulation investigates the effect of temperature on localization via thermomechanical coupling. Numerical simulations are presented to demonstrate the important role of anisotropy, hardening, and thermal softening on strain localization inception and orientation. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

等向压缩及偏压加载下锦屏大理岩变形特性研究

以中国锦屏地下实验室工程T_(2b)大理岩为研究对象,开展了等向压缩(σ_1=σ_2=σ_3)试验及不同围压下的三轴偏压(σ_1-σ_3)加载试验,分析讨论了大理岩等向压缩体积变形特点、围压对峰后变形行为及峰前渐进性变形破坏过程的影响。试验结果表明:大理岩的等向压缩体积变形在不同围压范围内经历了一个线性-非线性-线性的变化过程。等向压缩体变曲线上存在一个拐点(敏感应力),该点的围压能在一定程度上反映其应力历史。偏压加载时峰后变形表现为脆性-半脆性-延性转化特征,峰值强度随围压变化与等向压缩体变曲线斜率发生变化的转换围压是一致的。围压对渐进性破坏过程各个阶段均会产生一定影响,除偏差闭合应力阈值外,其余各特征偏应力阈值均随围压近似呈线性增加关系。在等向压缩和偏压加载时出现了2次裂隙闭合过程。试验成果对进一步研究硬岩的变形破坏机制、防治深部地下工程灾害具有一定参考价值。     

Anisotropic hardening of an initially isotropic porous limestone

SummaryAnisotropic Hardening of an Initially Isotropic Porous Limestone The work reported in this paper represents an attempt to explain the plastic behavior of a material such as porous rock that compacts or shows a volume decrease as it undergoes plastic deformation, and exhibits a yield strength dependence upon the hydrostatic pressure. Specifically, experimental results are reported for true-triaxial tests conducted on a porous limestone with the objectives of determining the yield surface in stress space, the flow rule, and induced anisotropy.The initial yield surface is obtained by compression tests, extension tests and a hydrostatic stress test. Permanent deformation occurs under a hydrostatic stress for the dry, porous limestone used in these tests, thus the initial yield surface forms a closed surface in stress space.The concept of normality of the strain increment vector with respect to the yield surface is investigated by using different loading paths in stress space. From these different paths of loading the normality principle can be verified. Furthermore, it is found that work hardening along one axis produces changes of the yield stress along the other axes so that a sample was initially isotropic becomes anisotropic as a result of the work hardening.

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ZusammenfassungAnisotrope Verfestigung von ursprünglich isotropem, porösem Kalk Das plastische Verhalten eines porösen Gesteins, das sich bei plastischen Deformationen verdichtet bzw. eine Volumsabnahme zeigt und eine vom hydrostatischen Teil des Spannungstensors abhängige Fließgrenze aufweist, wird zu erklären versucht. Im besonderen wird von Ergebnissen echter Triaxialversuche an porösen Kalken berichtet, die zum Ziel hatten, die Fließoberfläche im Spannungsraum, die Fließregel und eine induzierte Anisotropie zu bestimmen.Die ursprüngliche Fließoberfläche wurde mittels Druck- und Zugversuchen und Experimenten mit allseitig gleichem Druck bestimmt. In diesen Versuchen stellten sich bei dem trockenen, porösen Kalk unter hydrostatischer Belastung zunehmende Deformationen ein, weshalb sich die ursprüngliche Fließoberfläche als geschlossene Fläche im Spannungsraum ergab.Das Konzept der Normalität des Vektors der Verformungszunahme in bezug auf die Fließoberfläche wurde unter Verwendung verschiedener Belastungswege im Spannungsraum untersucht und verifiziert. Außerdem konnte gezeigt werden, daß eine Verfestigung entlang einer Achse Änderungen der Fließgrenze an den anderen Achsen hervorruft, so daß ein ursprünglich isotropes Gestein anisotrop wurde.

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RésuméDurcissement anisotropique d'une chaux poreuse, isotropique au commencement Ce article a l'intention d'expliquer le comportement plastique d'une matière comme un roc poreux que rend compact ou présente une diminution de volume quand il subit une déformation permanente, et expose une dépendence de la durabilité de l'allongement sur la pression hydrostatique. Expressément, les résultats des recherches expérimentales sont rapportés pour un essai de cisaillement triaxial vrai fait sur chaux poreuse avec l'intention de déterminer la limite d'élastique de la surface en espace des tensions, la propriété de fluage, et l'anisotropie induit.La surface de la limite d'allongement initiale est obteni par des essais de consolidation, des essais d'extension, et des essais de tension hydrostatique. Déformation permanent est fait quand il y a un tension hydrostatique pour la chaux sèche et poreuse qui on emploi dans les essais, ainsi la surface de la limite d'allongement intiale fait une fermée en espace des tensions.Le concept de la normalité de la vecteur du dilatation accroissement relativement à la surface de la limite d'allongement est examiné par l'usage des paths de chargement différents en espace des tensions. Avec ces paths différents le principe de normalité est vérifié. En outre, on découvre que durcissement par écrouissage en avant un axe produit changements de la contrainte d'écoulement en avant l'autre axe pour qu'une éprouvette qui été isotropique au commencement devient anisotropique par suite de le durcissement par écrouissage.

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With 10 Figures     

Revisiting the thermodynamics of hardening plasticity for unsaturated soils

A thermodynamically consistent extension of the constitutive equations of saturated soils to unsaturated conditions is often worked out through the use of a unique ‘effective’ interstitial pressure, accounting equivalently for the pressures of the saturating fluids acting separately on the internal solid walls of the pore network. The natural candidate for this effective interstitial pressure is the space averaged interstitial pressure. In contrast experimental observations have revealed that, at least, a pair of stress state variables was needed for a suitable framework to describe stress–strain–strength behaviour of unsaturated soils. The thermodynamics analysis presented here shows that the most general approach to the behaviour of unsaturated soils actually requires three stress state variables: the suction, which is required to describe the invasion of the soil by the liquid water phase through the retention curve; two effective stresses, which are required to describe the soil deformation at water saturation held constant. However a simple assumption related to the plastic flow rule leads to the final need of only a Bishop-like effective stress to formulate the stress–strain constitutive equation describing the soil deformation, while the retention properties still involve the suction and possibly the deformation. Commonly accepted models for unsaturated soils, that is the Barcelona Basic Model and any approach based on the use of an effective averaged interstitial pressure, appear as special extreme cases of the thermodynamic formulation proposed here.     

Experimental and numerical studies of rock salt strain hardening

The work presented in this paper comes as part of a research program dealing with the thermomechanical behaviour of rock salt. It aims to study laboratory and in-situ long-term behaviour by means of creep tests with deviator and temperature changes. The laboratory results, using a triaxial multi-stages creep tests, highlighted the strain hardening character of rock salt. Furthermore, the in-situ results, using a borehole dilatometer multi-step creep test, have shown that the drilling is carried out in a weakly stressed pillar. The interpretation of the laboratory results, using the J.LEMAITRE law, did not indicate full agreement with all the test results. As a result a ‘double’ J.LEMAITRE model, which takes into account a double strain hardening variable, has been put forward. The validation of this model on the laboratory creep tests is very satisfactory. Furthermore, the activation energy seems satisfactory to represent the influence of the temperature. The in-situ behaviour modelling is clearly more complex than the modelization based on laboratory tests. In fact, it seems that if the rock salt behaviour is maintained by J.LEMAITRE law, it is necessary to vary with the stress, at least, one of the parameters assumed constant in the basic law.     

Gradient plasticity modelling of strain localization in granular materials

The flow stress in the yield surface of plastic constitutive equation is modified with a higher order gradient term of the effective plastic strain to model the effect of inhomogeneous deformation in granular materials. The gradient constitutive model has been incorporated into the finite element code ABAQUS and used to simulate biaxial shear tests on dry sand. It is shown that the shape of the post-peak segment of the load displacement curve predicted by the numerical analysis is dependent on the mesh size when gradient term is not used. Use of an appropriate gradient coefficient is shown to correct this and predict a unique shape of the load displacement curve regardless of the mesh size. The gradient coefficient required turns out to be approximately inversely proportional to the mesh elemental area. Use of the strain gradient term is found to diffuse the concentration of plastic strains within shear band resulting in its consistent width. The coefficient of the higher gradient term appears as a function of the grain size, the mean confining stress, and the plastic softening modulus. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于梯度塑性模型的多孔介质应变局部化分析的基本理论

讨论了引入梯度塑性模型情况下的含液多孔介质双重内尺度律的特征以及相互作用问题。在引入梯度塑性本构模型的情况下,一方面材料应变局部化分析数值结果的正则性得到保证;而另一方面,含液多孔介质会出现双重内尺度律参数的共同作用问题。本文给出了此时内尺度律预测的一个基本方法,并对稳定性问题进行了分析,讨论了不同情况下实波速存在的条件,给出了对于给定的渗透系数情况下实波速存在的波数区间,并对相关现象进行了解释。     

单轴压缩下岩石应变局部化的应变梯度塑性解

通过在屈服函数中引入材料内部长度建立应变梯度塑性增量本构关系,对岩石材料在单轴压缩条件下应变局部化的二维情况进行了研究。首先,建立了在Mises屈服准则下平面应变情况的岩石材料应变局部化带的带宽与其倾角的关系式,讨论了其带宽的分布范围和最大值与最小值形成的条件,给出岩石材料破坏Ⅰ, Ⅱ类变形的条件,并推出破坏的临界角度;其次,对岩石材料Ⅰ类变形进行了详细地分析,讨论了在不同泊松比 和 条件下材料应变局部化带的倾角的变化范围;最后,利用所得的结论同材料破坏的库仑准则进行对比研究,对内摩擦系数给予了合理的解释。     

Implicit integration of a mixed isotropic–kinematic hardening plasticity model for structured clays

In recent years, a number of constitutive models have been proposed to describe mathematically the mechanical response of natural clays. Some of these models are characterized by complex formulations, often leading to non‐trivial problems in their numerical integration in finite elements codes. The paper describes a fully implicit stress‐point algorithm for the numerical integration of a single‐surface mixed isotropic–kinematic hardening plasticity model for structured clays. The formulation of the model stems from a compromise between its capability of reproducing the larger number of features characterizing the behaviour of structured clays and the possibility of developing a robust integration algorithm for its implementation in a finite elements code. The model is characterized by an ellipsoid‐shaped yield function, inside which a stress‐dependent reversible stiffness is accounted for by a non‐linear hyperelastic formulation. The isotropic part of the hardening law extends the standard Cam‐Clay one to include plastic strain‐driven softening due to bond degradation, while the kinematic hardening part controls the evolution of the position of the yield surface in the stress space. The proposed algorithm allows the consistent linearization of the constitutive equations guaranteeing the quadratic rate of asymptotic convergence in the global‐level Newton–Raphson iterative procedure. The accuracy and the convergence properties of the proposed algorithm are evaluated with reference to the numerical simulations of single element tests and the analysis of a typical geotechnical boundary value problem. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

层状横观各向同性地基平面应变问题的扩展精细积分解

利用扩展精细积分法求解横观各向同性地基的平面应变问题。扩展精细积分法具有高精度和较高计算效率的特点,是求解微分方程的有效方法,相比于解析法可以节省大量理论推导工作量。从直角坐标下弹性力学控制方程出发,推导出Fourier变换域内地基的常微分矩阵方程;之后对地基微层元进行消元合并,进一步得到荷载作用在地基内部时层状地基的扩展精细积解。与已有文献的对比验证了方法的精确性,并分析了横观各向同性参数、层状性质和荷载作用点对计算结果的影响。结果表明：土体竖向位移随着横观各向同性参数n的增大而减小,而随着横观各向同性参数m的增大而增大;荷载作用点 的变化只对作用点以上的土体有影响,而上层土体的模量对竖向位移计算结果的影响更为显著,土体成层性对沉降的影响要比对竖向应力的影响更为显著。     

塑性梯度体元及应变局部化启动机制分析

利用代表性体元可较好地反映出并非理想连续均匀的岩土介质破坏前强度和变形行为。但当材料出现高的应变梯度(应变局部化)时,在体元上的应力、应变呈现高次非线性变化,代表性体元不能如实地反映出介质的力学性能。提出一种可包含局部化变形的研究基元--塑性梯度体元(Plasticity Gradient Volume Element) ,塑性应变在其内可用微分形式表达。该体元不但可反映介质的平均力学响应,而且可反映应变呈高次非线性变化时的影响。随着硬(软)化模量从正值变为负值,变形模式将由均匀变形模式变为局部化变形模式,这就是应变局部化的启动机制。     

非线性硬化与非线性软化的巷、隧道围岩塑性分析

在符合岩体实际的弹性、应变非线性硬化和具拐点的非线性软化的三段式光滑连接应力-应变关系条件下,求得静水压力下圆形巷、隧道围岩塑性硬化区和软化区的应力分布表达式。证明了所求得的巷道围岩径向和切向应力曲线在硬化区半径 和软化区半径 处均光滑连接,特别是所求得的切向应力 - 曲线没有尖峰向上的应力集中,此结果与日本学者久武胜保的试验结果一致。指出基于理想弹、塑性本构模型的Kastener解有明显缺陷,其 - 曲线尖峰向上的应力集中与实际不符。     

煤柱下底板偏应力区域特征及案例

选取某煤矿近距离煤层为工程背景,采用FLAC3D模拟了8#煤层残余煤柱底板偏应力场分布特征。结果表明：（1）底板的偏应力呈扩散状向底板传递,距离煤柱越远扩散范围越广,煤柱边缘偏应力呈45°向底板传播;（2）煤柱较窄时,中线和边缘处偏应力影响深度浅,随煤柱宽度增加,底板偏应力变化和影响深度较大,当煤柱宽度足够大时,影响深度又变浅,中部趋于原岩应力;（3）同一水平面上,偏应力呈马鞍状分布,随煤柱宽度增加,煤柱中线处和边缘处偏应力经历了先增大后减小的过程,煤柱边缘处偏应力峰值位置变化不大;（4）同一煤柱宽度,煤柱边缘偏应力峰值向深部递减且趋势减慢,同时,峰值远离煤柱且趋势加快。在自由边界受均布载荷、底板垂直应力、水平应力、切应力解析解的基础上,推导了底板偏应力解析公式,解析与模拟结果基本吻合。具体到该工程的地质条件,9205轨道巷距离煤柱边缘20 m、9205回风巷在煤柱边缘、9205运输巷在煤柱中线处,9205轨道巷维护效果最好,证明了内错式巷道且距离煤柱足够远时,偏应力较小,宏观应力环境更适合巷道围岩自稳。     

A Generalized Backward Euler algorithm for the numerical integration of an isotropic hardening elastoplastic model for mechanical and chemical degradation of bonded geomaterials

An extended version of the classical Generalized Backward Euler (GBE) algorithm is proposed for the numerical integration of a three‐invariant isotropic‐hardening elastoplastic model for cemented soils or weak rocks undergoing mechanical and non‐mechanical degradation processes. The restriction to isotropy allows to formulate the return mapping algorithm in the space of principal elastic strains. In this way, an efficient and robust integration scheme is developed which can be applied to relatively complex yield surface and plastic potential functions. Moreover, the proposed algorithm can be linearized in closed form, thus allowing for quadratic convergence in the global Newton iteration. A series of numerical experiments are performed to illustrate the accuracy and convergence properties of the algorithm. Selected results from a finite element analysis of a circular footing on a soft rock layer undergoing chemical weathering are then presented to illustrate the algorithm performance at the boundary value problem level. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An improved implicit numerical integration of a non‐associated,three‐invariant cap plasticity model with mixed isotropic–kinematic hardening for geomaterials

The Sandia GeoModel is a continuum elastoplastic constitutive model that captures many features of the mechanical response for geological materials over a wide range of porosities and strain rates. Among the specific features incorporated into the formulation are a smooth compression cap, isotropic/kinematic hardening, nonlinear pressure dependence, strength differential effect, and rate sensitivity. This study attempts to provide enhancements regarding computational tractability, domain of applicability, and robustness of the model. A new functional form is presented for the yield and plastic potential functions. This reformulation renders a more accurate, robust, and efficient model as it eliminates spurious solutions attributed to the original form. In addition, we achieve a high‐performance implementation, because the local iterative method is allowed to recast residual vectors with a uniform dimensionality. The model is also furnished with a smooth, elliptical tension cap to account for the tensile yielding. Moreover, an efficient algorithm is introduced, which decreases the computational cost by differentiating the updated shear yield surface from the cap surface based on the trial relative stress state. Finally, various numerical examples including a large‐scale boundary value problem are presented to demonstrate the fidelity of the modified model and to analyze its numerical performance. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The golden ark: arsenopyrite crystal plasticity and the retention of gold through high strain and metamorphism

Quantitative electron backscatter diffraction analysis and ion microprobe imaging of gold‐rich arsenopyrites provide the first insights into the crystal plasticity and element mobility behaviour of arsenopyrites through metamorphism (340°–460° and 2 kbar). Remarkably, the gold‐rich arsenopyrites remained structurally and chemically robust during high strain deformation. It was only during a superimposed lower strain deformation event, at a high angle to the preferred orientation of the arsenopyrites, that small amounts of crystal plasticity affected the arsenopyrites. During the low strain event, a dissolution–reprecipitation reaction resulted in loss of gold from the crystal lattice, facilitated by localised domains of recrystallisation, most likely due to fluid percolation along sub‐ and new grain boundaries. We suggest that the abundance and rheologically robust nature of gold‐rich arsenopyrite in giant gold deposits, affected by greenschist–amphibolite metamorphism, is actually critical in the preservation of those deposits.