Rainfall over oceans: Remote sensing from satellite microwave radiometers

Summary Microwave radiometer brightness temperature (T _b) measurements obtained from satellites over the oceans in dual polarization, at frequencies ranging from 6.6 to 85 GHz, reveal information about the rain and precipitation sized ice. These multifrequency measurements are composited from observations made by the Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) and the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I). TheT _b measurements at 37 GHz, having a field of view (fov) of about 30 km, show relatively strong emissions due to rain, reaching values as large as 260 K over the tropical and mid-latitude rainbelts. Only marginal effects due to scattering by ice above the rain clouds are revealed. At frequencies below 37 GHz, where the fov is much larger than 30 km and the extinction is weaker,T _b is significantly smaller than 260 K. Additional information content about rain, at these low frequencies, is not appreciable. On the other hand, at 85 GHz (fov 15 km), where the extinction is very strong, the sea surface below the clouds is often masked and scattering due to ice above the rain clouds is vividly noticed. However, these high frequency measurements do not yield direct information about rain below the clouds.Recognizing the above merits inherent in the 37 GHz observations the SMMR and SSM/I data at this frequency are utilized to develop and empirical method to retrieve rain rate over oceans. In this method it is assumed that over an oceanic area, the statistics of the observedT _b must be derivable from the statistics of the corresponding rain rates. Furthermore, the underestimation of rain rate, arising from the inability of the radiometer to respond sensitively to rain above a given threshold is empirically rectified with the help of two parameters that depend on the total water vapor content in the atmosphere. Rain rates deduced over the oceans around Japan using the SSM/I data, when compared with those measured by radars that are calibrated against rain gauges, show a good correlation; there is, however, a systematic overestimation. Seasonal mean maps of the rainfall over the global oceans based on SMMR data compare favorably with climatological rain maps over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans developed by Dorman and Bourke (1979, 1981).With 16 Figures     

Variability of soil moisture and its relationship with surface albedo and soil thermal parameters over the Loess Plateau

Data from July 2006 to June 2008 observed at SACOL(Semi-Arid Climate and Environment Observatory of Lanzhou University,35.946°N,104.137°E,elev.1961 m),a semi-arid site in Northwest China,are used to study seasonal variability of soil moisture,along with surface albedo and other soil thermal parameters, such as heat capacity,thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity,and their relationships to soil moisture content.The results indicate that surface albedo decreases with increases in soil moisture content,s...     

RPG-HATPRO-G3地基微波辐射计反演产品评估

RPG-HATPRO-G3地基微波辐射计采用“多通道并行测量技术”,性能稳定,反演精度高。应用该微波辐射计和常规L波段探空数据,比较了微波辐射计反演数据与探空测值的差异。结果表明：温度、水汽密度与常规探空资料比较有很好的线性相关性,对仪器维护后可以提高数据质量;相对湿度数据离散度较高。比较无降水时不同高度下微波辐射计反演数据的精度,温度在1 000 m以下低层平均误差和均方根误差较小;水汽密度的平均误差和均方根误差均为近地面较大,随高度而减小;相对湿度的平均误差和均方根误差都明显较大,温度和水汽密度的准确性高于相对湿度。降水时不同高度的温度、水汽密度和相对湿度的平均误差和均方根误差变化趋势均与无降水时相似,但是误差值明显偏大;降水时反演温度在2 000 m以下误差较小,水汽密度在3 000 m以下反演值较探空测值大,相对湿度在降水时的误差较大。     

Variation of surface albedo and soil thermal parameters with soil moisture content at a semi-desert site on the western Tibetan Plateau

Almost three years of continuous measurements taken between January 2001 and May 2003 at the Gaize (or Gerze) automatic weather station (32.30 °N, 84.06 °E, 4420 m), a cold semi-desert site on the western Tibetan Plateau, have been used to study seasonal and annual variations of surface albedo and soil thermal parameters, such as thermal conductivity, thermal capacity and thermal diffusivity, and their relationship to soil moisture content. Most of these parameters undergo dramatic seasonal and annual variations. Surface albedo decreases with increasing soil moisture content, showing the typical exponential relation between surface albedo and soil moisture. Soil thermal conductivity increases as a power function of soil moisture content. The diffusivity first increases with increasing soil moisture, reaching its maximum at about 0.25 (volume per volume), then slowly decreases. Soil thermal capacity is rather stable for a wide range of soil moisture content.     

Spin-up behavior of soil moisture content over East Asia in a land surface model

This study presents an investigation of the spin-up behavior of soil moisture content (SMC) and evapotranspiration (ET) in an offline Noah land surface model (LSM) for East Asia, focusing on its interplay with the Asian monsoon. The set of 5-year recursive runs is conducted to properly assess the spin-up behavior of land surface processes and consists of simulations initialized with (1) a spatially uniform soil moisture, (2) NCEP GDAS soil moisture data, and (3) ECMWF ERA-Interim soil moisture data. Each run starts either after or before the summer monsoon. Initial SMCs from GDAS and ERA-Interim data significantly deviate from the equilibrium state (spin-up state) with the given input forcing even though the same equilibrium is reached within 3-year spin-up time, indicating that spin-up of land surface process is necessary. SMC reaches the equilibrium much quickly when (1) the consistent LSMs have been used in the prediction and analysis systems and (2) the spin-up simulation starts before the onset of heavy rainfall events during summer monsoon. For an area with heavy monsoon rainfall, the total column SMC and ET spin up quickly. The spin-up time over dry land is about 2–3?years, but for monsoon rainfall area decreases dramatically to about 3?months if the spin-up run starts just before the onset of monsoon. Further scrutiny shows that the spin-up time is well correlated with evaporative fraction given by the ratio between the latent heat flux and the available energy at the land surface.     

星载降水雷达机载校飞试验：地基多通道微波辐射计估算雷达路径积分衰减

介绍了在雷达观测降水试验中如何配合利用地基微波辐射计估算雷达路径积分衰减(PIA)的一种方法.所用的GPS高空探空资料和地基多通道微波辐射计的观测资料,均为中国首次星载降水雷达机载校飞试验中获得的数据.由于常规探空资料中没有云水含量的直接信息,因此,通过绝热液态水含量分析方法,从GPS探空数据中计算得到这些云参数值.用MWMOD进行亮温模拟并计算液态水含量.在晴空条件下,用该模式模拟了地基多通道微波辐射计12个通道的下行辐射亮温.通过设置相对湿度阈值,利用MWMOD模式自带的绝热液态水含量分析方法,从探空廓线中分析出液态水廓线,进而模拟出有云情况下的下行辐射亮温.辐射传输模式的模拟亮温和地基多通道微波辐射计观测亮温的对比表明,进行云分析之后的模拟亮温值更接近于实测值.由此,利用由辐射传输模式和地基微波辐射计,从探空廓线中分析出液态水廓线,计算出有云情况下的大气整层透过率,进而得到路径积分衰减,为降水雷达衰减订正提供一种有效手段.     

A study of the sensitivity of bare soil evaporation schemes to soil surface wetness,using the coupled soil moisture and surface temperature prediction model,BARESOIL

Summary The performance of evaporation schemes with and approach and their combination within resistance representation of evaporation from bare soil surface is discussed. For this purpose nine schemes, based on different functions of or , on the ratio of the volumetric soil moisture content and its saturated value are used.The quality of the chosen schemes has been evaluated using the results of time integration by the coupled soil moisture and surface temperature prediction model, BARESOIL, using in situ data. A sensitivity analysis was made using two sets of data derived from the volumetric soil moisture content of the top soil layer. One with values below the wilting point (0.17 m³m^–3) and the second with values above 0.20m³m^–3. Data sets were obtained at the experimental site Rimski anevi, Yugoslavia, from the bare surface of a chernozem soil.With 4 Figures     

ASCAT土壤湿度数据在新疆干旱监测中的应用

截至目前,欧洲气象卫星组织新一代"Met Op"系列卫星搭载的先进的ASCAT散射仪所观测的土壤湿度数据在我国尚未得到应用。本文拟通过使用NOAA的先进算法处理ASCAT土壤湿度数据,并开发干旱预报系统以用于监测新疆土壤水分来预测其干旱情况。文中首次使用ASCAT土壤湿度数据、前沿人工智能技术在新疆干旱监测中,为干旱监测提供了新的研究思路,开发出新的干旱预报系统对土壤水分等级有一定的预报能力,其中新设计的干旱指数-Met Op卫星反演的土壤湿度距平百分数可以有效提高干旱监测的时间精度,便于更好地开展决策服务。     

地基微波辐射计对咸宁一次冰雹天气过程的监测分析

利用咸宁MP-3000A地基微波辐射计探测资料对2010年4月12日发生在咸宁的一次冰雹天气过程进行了监测分析。结果表明:(1)在这次冰雹天气过程中,冰雹云中上升气流非常强盛,引起云底高度剧烈波动,同时将底层空气的感热和潜热向上输送导致等温线上抬,并伴随贝吉隆增长和过冷水滴与冰晶消耗等过程,由于这些宏观和微观过程使得整层水汽与液态水含量连续出现下降和上升过程,产生了多峰结构;(2)在4.2—8km高度过冷层的冰雹云中,08时40分—13时的固、液、气混合相态变化非常复杂,过冷水滴与冰粒子消耗过程、贝吉隆过程和过冷水滴与冰晶增长过程交替出现,产生了相对湿度在6km以下低于80%的区域,且液态水含量在4.2—8km高度处出现0.7—1.8g/m3的大值区,从而形成了冰雹生长过程中交替干、湿增长生长环境,非常有利于冰雹粒子群快速累积以及分层增长;(3)利用微波辐射计资料计算分析了MKI、KI、TT和HI四个不稳定指数,这些指数对强对流天气有很好的指示作用,并对强对流天气有一定的临近预警潜力,若选取KI≥38作为该地区强对流天气预警指标,可以提前45min预警第1次降雹强对流天气,且分别提前20、40和42min预警第2、3、4个对流单体影响该地区。     

云对地基微波辐射计反演湿度廓线的影响

利用2017年1月—2019年5月逐日08∶00（北京时,下同）、20∶00贵阳地基微波辐射计和无线电探空仪、地面自动站观测数据,评估了微波辐射计在晴空时温度廓线的反演误差及误差的标准差的季节变化以及逆温与误差的关系,结果显示：（1）从春季到冬季4个季节垂直温度廓线的误差分别为-1.71~1.35℃、-1.69~0.78℃、-2.24~1.29℃、-4.98~1.49℃,误差的标准差分别为1.13~2.93℃、0.43~1.86℃、0.76~1.92℃、0.62~3.48℃,春季到秋季的误差及误差的标准差在垂直方向的变化较为一致,冬季误差和误差的标准差均大于其它季节。（2）逆温与误差有较好的相关性。在逆温的3种表达方式中,逆温层厚度为490~740 m时,逆温层厚度与误差有最优的相关系数,最大相关系数出现在逆温层厚度为650 m时;逆温层厚度小于490 m或大于740 m且逆温差阈值为1.2℃时与误差有最优的相关系数。（3）逆温平均高度和误差平均高度的拟合度较差,不能由逆温发生的高度推测误差所在高度。

     

东亚中纬度夏季陆面增暖与土壤湿度异常的联系

利用1979—2015年ERA-Interim再分析土壤湿度、云量资料,NCEP/NCAR再分析环流资料和CPC土壤湿度资料,分析了东亚中纬度夏季陆面热力异常的时空分布特征及其与前期春季土壤湿度异常的联系,探讨了前期春季土壤湿度影响东亚中纬度夏季陆面增暖的可能途径。结果表明,东亚中纬度夏季土壤表层温度呈全区一致增暖趋势,其中贝加尔湖及以南地区温度变化最剧烈、增暖最迅速,且1990年代中期前后存在一个明显由冷向暖的年代际转变。进一步分析发现,春、夏季西西伯利亚到贝加尔湖北部地区的土壤湿度与夏季贝加尔湖及以南地区的土壤表层温度在年代际和年际尺度上均存在紧密联系:西西伯利亚到贝加尔湖北部地区土壤湿度异常偏高,通常对应贝加尔湖及南部地区夏季土壤表层温度偏高。西西伯利亚到贝加尔湖北部地区春、夏土壤湿度异常可以引起夏季大气环流异常,从而对东亚夏季中纬度陆面热力异常产生影响:春、夏土壤湿度偏高时,贝加尔湖及其南部地区上空位势高度为正异常,对应为反气旋性异常环流,云量减少,有利于东亚中纬度陆面增暖;反之,则对应为气旋性异常环流,不利于陆面增暖。     

Relationships between surface albedo,soil thermal parameters and soil moisture in the semi-arid area of Tongyu,northeastern China

Continuous observation data collected over the whole year of 2004 on a cropland surtace m Tongyu, a senti-arid area of northeastern China （44°25＇N, 122°52＇E）, have been used to investigate the variations of surface albedo and soil thermal parameters, including heat capacity, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity, and their relationships to soil moisture. The diurnal variation of surface albedo appears as a U shape curve on sunny days. Surface albedo decreases with the increase of solar elevation angle, and it tends to be a constant when solar elevation angle is larger than 40°. So the daily average surface albedo was computed using the data when solar elevation angle is larger than 40° Mean daily surface albedo is found to decrease with the increase of soil moisture, showing an exponential dependence on soil moisture. The variations of soil heat capacity are small during Julian days 90 300. Compared with the heat capacity, soil thermal conductivity has very gentle variations during this period, but the soil thermal diffusivity has wide variations during the same period. The soil thermal conductivity is found to increase as a power function of soil moisture. The soil thermal diffusivity increases firstly and then decreases with the increase of soil moisture.     

Monitoring soil moisture regimes of field crops with gypsum blocks

Summary Gypsum blocks proved to be a valuable tool for practical field research of crop water balances during the summer half year in a semihumid environment. Information on blocktype, calibration and compensation of temperature effects are given and the suitability of the gypsum block method is discussed using several examples of measured soil water tensions and soil water contents below different crops and bare soil. The main advantage of the gypsum block method is that they are suitable for monitoring soil water status below crops and plant communities continuously. After installation the nylon-impregnated blocks can be left in place for years and measurements may be taken from outside the crop stand thus avoiding any disturbances of the plants environment.With 7 Figures     

The statistical structure of the field of surface soil layer moisture from ground-based and satellite observations

The following data was used: the archives of measurements of available water capacity carried out at Roshydromet network of stations and satellite measurements of relative humidity of the upper soil layer from ASCAT data (from the MetOp satellites). The statistical structure of the field of available water capacity in the upper 10- and 20-cm soil layers is assessed. The correlations between the Earth remote sensing data and data from agrometeorological stations are revealed. The procedure of automatic data checking from ground-based observations is developed. The algorithm is suggested for statistically optimal conversion of the Earth remote sensing data to the estimate of moisture content in the upper soil layer.     

A Parameterization of Bowen Ratio with Respect to Soil Moisture Availability

The Bowen ratio (B) is impacted by 5 environmental elements: soil moisture availability, m, the ratio of resist-ances between atmosphere and soil pores, ra/rd, atmospheric relative humidity, h, atmospheric stability, ΔT, and environment temperature. These impacts have been investigated over diverse surfaces, including bare soil, free water surface, and vegetation covered land, using an analytical approach. It was concluded that: (a) B is not a continuous function. The singularity exists at the condition αhcb=h, occurring preferably in the following conditions: weak turbulence, stable stratified stability, dry soil, and humid air, where hcb, defined by Eq.(11) is a critical variable. The existence of a singularity makes the dependence of B on the five variables very complicated. The value of B approaches being inversely proportional to m under the conditions m≥mfc (the soil capacity) and / or ra/rd→0. The proportional coefficient changes with season and latitude with relatively high values in winter and over the poles; (b) B is nearly independent of ra/rd during the day. The impact of m on B is much larger as compared to that of ra/rd on B, (c) when h increases, the absolute value of B also increases; (d) over bare soil, when the absolute surface net radiation increases, the absolute value of B will increase. The impact of RN on B is larger at night than during the day, and (e) over plant canopy, the singularity and the dependcies of B on m, ra , and h are modified as compared to that over bare soil. Also (i) during the daytime unstable condition, m exerts an even stronger impact on B, at night, however, B changes are weak in response to the change in m; (ii) the value of B is much more sensitive in response to the changes of turbulent intensity; (iii) the B response to the variation of h over a vegetation covered area is weaker; and (iv) the singularity exists at the condition hcp=h instead of αhcb=h as over bare soil, where hcp is defined by Eq.(49). The formulas derived over bare soil also hold the same when applied to free water bodies as long as they are visualized as a special soil in which the volumetric fraction of soil pore is equal to one and are fully filled with water. Finally, the above discussions, are used to briefly study the impact on the thermally induced mesoscale circulations.     

基于遥感数据的宁夏地区土壤水分反演方法比较

利用MODIS产品数据MOD11A2和MOD13A2获取地表温度(TS)、昼夜温差(DST)、归一化植被指数(NDVI)、增强植被指数(EVI),构建宁夏区域2005年4、7、10月逢8、18、28日TS-NDVI、TS-EVI、DST-NDVI、DST-EVI特征空间,根据TS-NDVI、TS-EVI、DST-NDVI、DST-EVI特征空间建立了温度植被干旱指数(TVDI)、温度增强植被指数型干旱指数(TEDI)、温差植被干旱指数(DTVDI)、温差增强植被指数型干旱指数(DTEDI),并以这些干旱指数作为土壤水分监测指标,反演了宁夏区域2005年4、7、10月的土壤水分.利用实测10 cm土壤水分进行相关分析,结果表明DTEDI在宁夏土壤水分反演中表现较好,DTVDI表现略好.     

土壤水分条件对亚麻生长发育的影响

采用随机区组设计，三次重复，研究了土壤湿度对亚麻生长发育的影响，在生育期间定期取样，分别测定干物重、CAT、POD活性及叶绿素含量，并在收获后分析种子包衣对高度、工艺长度、萌果数、分枝数、原茎数、纤维重及出麻率的影响。结果表明：高水份条件利于亚麻的生长发育，能有效提高CAT和POD的活性，增加抗病抗害能力，促进干物质的积累，在一定程度上提高了亚麻出麻率。     

土壤水分测定技术探讨

从土壤水分取样测定、土壤水文常数测定、观测簿的填写等各方面对土壤水分测定技术做一探讨,提出正确开展土壤水分测定应注意的问题,以供各土壤水分测定站观测人员参考。     

Estimates of continental-scale soil wetness and comparison with the soil moisture data of Mintz and Serafini

 Soil wetness, in both its global distribution and the seasonal change, has been mainly estimated by the water balance approach using the bucket model which regards the soil wetness as soil moisture. The soil moisture data of Mintz and Serafini is one of the representatives examples, however, this method has problems since it does not incorporate the effects of flooding, snow accumulation on the ground, and so on. In this study, we use the Amazon and Volga river basin to carry out a case study to evaluate these problems. In the Amazon river basin, the annual range of the entire terrestrial water storage, about 400 mm, can be mainly explained by the rising and falling of the water level, and flooding around river channels, although soil moisture data of Mintz and Serafini is almost constant throughout the year. In the Volga river basin, snow accumulates on the ground producing 80 mm of water equivalent during winter, however the soil moisture data of Mintz and Serafini is almost saturated in winter. Received: 30 October 1996 / Accepted: 4 June 1997