Energy of acoustic signals in a borehole

In the present article, the dependencies of the acoustic signal total energy and the energies of the wave packets of different types of the waves on the elastic parameters and permeability of rocks have been studied. We have considered traditional logging tools containing acoustical monopole source. Calculations were performed in a frequency range of dozens of kilohertz, typical for acoustic well logging. It was shown that in a typical high-velocity formation (v_s > v_f, where v_s and v_f are the velocities of the shear wave in the rock and of the compressional wave in the borehole fluid, respectively), the pseudo-Rayleigh waves, whose elastic properties depend mainly on the shear modulus of the rock, contributed significant energy to the total signal energy in the borehole. The energies of different wave packets depend on the permeability in different ways. The greatest sensitivity to permeability change has been shown by the acoustic signal total energy and the energy of the low-velocity part of the pseudo-Rayleigh wave packet. The theoretical analysis was illustrated by real sonic log data.     

Dispersion and radial depth of investigation of borehole modes

Sonic techniques in geophysical prospecting involve elastic wave velocity measurements that are performed by placing acoustic transmitters and receivers in a fluid‐filled borehole. The signals recorded at the receivers are processed to obtain compressional‐ and shear‐wave velocities in the surrounding formation. These velocities are generally used in seismic surveys for the time‐to‐depth conversion and other formation parameters, such as porosity and lithology. Depending upon the type of transmitter used (e.g. monopole or dipole) and as a result of eccentering, it is possible to excite axisymmetric (n= 0) , flexural (n= 1) and quadrupole (n= 2) families of modes propagating along the borehole. We present a study of various propagating and leaky modes that includes their dispersion and attenuation characteristics caused by radiation into the surrounding formation. A knowledge of propagation characteristics of borehole modes helps in a proper selection of transmitter bandwidth for suppressing unwanted modes that create problems in the inversion for the compressional‐ and shear‐wave velocities from the dispersive arrivals. It also helps in the design of a transmitter for a preferential excitation of a given mode in order to reduce interference with drill‐collar or drilling noise for sonic measurements‐while‐drilling. Computational results for the axisymmetric family of modes in a fast formation with a shear‐wave velocity of 2032 m/s show the existence of Stoneley, pseudo‐Rayleigh and anharmonic cut‐off modes. In a slow formation with a shear‐wave velocity of 508 m/s, we find the existence of the Stoneley mode and the first leaky compressional mode which cuts in at approximately the same normalized frequency ωa/V_S= 2.5 (a is the borehole radius) as that of the fast formation. The corresponding modes among the flexural family include the lowest‐order flexural and anharmonic cut‐off modes. For both the fast and slow formations, the first anharmonic mode cuts in at a normalized frequency ωa/V_S= 1.5 approximately. Cut‐off frequencies of anharmonic modes are inversely proportional to the borehole radius in the absence of any tool. The borehole quadrupole mode can also be used for estimating formation shear slownesses. The radial depth of investigation with a quadrupole mode is marginally less than that of a flexural mode because of its higher frequency of excitation.     

Lithology and hydrocarbon mapping from multicomponent seismic data

Elastic rock properties can be estimated from prestack seismic data using amplitude variation with offset analysis. P‐wave, S‐wave and density ‘reflectivities’, or contrasts, can be inverted from angle‐band stacks. The ‘reflectivities’ are then inverted to absolute acoustic impedance, shear impedance and density. These rock properties can be used to map reservoir parameters through all stages of field development and production. When P‐wave contrast is small, or gas clouds obscure reservoir zones, multicomponent ocean‐bottom recording of converted‐waves (P to S or Ps) data provides reliable mapping of reservoir boundaries. Angle‐band stacks of multicomponent P‐wave (Pz) and Ps data can also be inverted jointly. In this paper Aki‐Richards equations are used without simplifications to invert angle‐band stacks to ‘reflectivities’. This enables the use of reflection seismic data beyond 30° of incident angles compared to the conventional amplitude variation with offset analysis. It, in turn, provides better shear impedance and density estimates. An important input to amplitude variation with offset analysis is the V_s/V_p ratio. Conventional methods use a constant or a time‐varying V_s/V_p model. Here, a time‐ and space‐varying model is used during the computation of the ‘reflectivities’. The V_s/V_p model is generated using well log data and picked horizons. For multicomponent data applications, the latter model can also be generated from processing V_s/V_p models and available well data. Reservoir rock properties such as λρ, μρ, Poisson's ratio and bulk modulus can be computed from acoustic impedance, shear impedance and density for pore fill and lithology identification. λ and μ are the Lamé constants and ρ is density. These estimations can also be used for a more efficient log property mapping. V_p/V_s ratio or Poisson's ratio, λρ and weighted stacks, such as the one computed from λρ and λ/μ, are good gas/oil and oil/water contact indicators, i.e., pore fill indicators, while μρ mainly indicates lithology. μρ is also affected by pressure changes. Results from a multicomponent data set are used to illustrate mapping of gas, oil and water saturation and lithology in a Tertiary sand/shale setting. Whilst initial log crossplot analysis suggested that pore fill discrimination may be possible, the inversion was not successful in revealing fluid effects. However, rock properties computed from acoustic impedance, shear impedance and density estimates provided good lithology indicators; pore fill identification was less successful. Neural network analysis using computed rock properties provided good indication of sand/shale distribution away from the existing wells and complemented the results depicted from individual rock property inversions.     

充液井中多极声源的辐射效率

利用反射声场探测井外地质构造的声波远探测方法已逐渐成为石油测井的一门重要应用技术.在远探测测井中声源常采用单极、偶极和四极等.为了考察各种声学辐射器的辐射性能,本文从辐射声场和井孔声场的能流密度出发,提出了一种利用辐射器向井外辐射的能量与沿井筒传播的能量比的大小来评价其辐射效率的方法,考察了不同声源激发的沿井传播的导波能流、地层辐射波能流及声源辐射效率随频率的变化规律.计算结果表明:不同声源的辐射效率和优势激发频段各不相同.单极声源在低频下的辐射效率很低,因为此时声源激发的能量几乎全部被斯通利波带走,相比之下,偶极声源在低频时的辐射效率远大于单极声源.本文的结果说明了偶极声源作为低频远探测声源要优于单极声源.     

The relationships between the velocities,attenuations and petrophysical properties of reservoir sedimentary rocks1

We have measured the velocities and attenuations of compressional and shear waves in 29 water-saturated samples of sandstones and shales at a confining pressure of 60 MPa and at frequencies of about 0.85 MHz. The measurements were made using a pulse echo method in which the samples (diameter 5 cm, length 1.5 cm to 2.5 cm) were placed between perspex buffer rods inside a high-pressure cell. The velocity of each seismic wave was determined from the traveltime difference of equivalent phase points (corrected for diffraction effects) of the signals reflected from the top and from the base of each sample. Attenuation was determined in a similar way by comparison of the diffraction corrected amplitudes of the signals. The attenuation data are presented as ‘quality factors’: Q_p and Q_s for compressional and shear waves respectively. The results show that Q_s is strongly correlated with V_s, that Q_p is weakly correlated with V_p, and that Q_p is strongly correlated with Q_s. Q_p is strongly dependent on the volume percentage of the assemblage of intra-pore minerals, whether they are clays or carbonates. It is concluded that the attenuation mechanism is due to the local fluid flow arising from the differential dilation of the solid rock frame and the intra-pore mineral assemblage, which is a result of their very different elastic moduli.     

非对称声源多极子随钻声波测井实验室测量研究

现有的随钻声波测井通常采用三种测量方式:单极子、偶极子及四极子测量模式.分别采用单极子源、偶极子源和四极子源激发单极子、偶极子和四极子信号对地层速度信息进行测量.由于随钻测井环境比较复杂,钻杆在井孔中占据大部分空间,钻杆速度高于地层速度,导致接收到的信号中仪器波能量占主导,无法有效地提取地层的纵横波速度信息.本文探讨一种采用非对称偏心的点声源,一次激发,利用方位分布的四个接收器接收,经过合成后同时分别得到单极子、偶极子和四极子模式波信号的测量方法,为建立同时利用多极模式波信号测量地层纵横波速度的随钻声波测井实用技术提供基础.本文利用1:12的缩比模型在实验室对该方法进行了考察,实验结果证明,可以通过非对称点声源得到有效的地层单极子、偶极子和四极子模式波信号.通过分析和对比实测数据和理论模拟的频散曲线,本文进一步提出利用三种模式波的频散曲线联合反演确定地层横波速度的方法.     

多极源随钻声波测井实验分析

本文针对随钻声波测井中钻铤波干扰地层声波测量的问题,设计了小尺寸随钻声波测井探头,在实验室内开展了多极源(单极源、偶极源和四极源)随钻声波测井实验研究.先在水池中对裸露的探头进行了随钻测量,记录到了沿钻铤传播的直达钻铤波,并获得了不同声源激发的钻铤波速度.之后在砂岩和有机玻璃模型中进行了随钻声波测井实验,观测到多极源随钻测井的全波波形,并通过与水池中实验结果的对比,分析了井中钻铤波的传播特性.特别地,在偶极随钻测井实验中不仅记录到了偶极一阶钻铤波,还观测到对弯曲波干扰较大的偶极二阶钻铤波,进而研究了不同声源频率下该波群的响应特性及其对弯曲波测量的影响.此外,基于单极源和偶极源随钻声波测井实验数据,本文发现:随着声源频率的增加,单极和偶极钻铤波的传播特性不同,但它们在测井全波中的相对幅度均降低,进而可从测井全波中较好地提取地层的声波速度.本文实验结果对随钻声波测井仪器设计及测井数据解释具有重要意义.     

随钻四极源声波测井多模式采集测量TTI地层各向异性的研究

本文应用三维柱坐标时域有限差分方法模拟了多极子随钻声波测井的波场,提出了在横向各向同性（TI）慢速地层倾斜井中,使用四极源激发、多模式采集进行各向异性参数反演的方法.模拟结果表明：在强各向异性地层大角度倾斜井中使用四极源能够激发出多极模式波,并且井孔内的声场会随着声源方向角β（声源方向和快横波偏振方向的夹角）的改变而发生变化.使用四极子采集方式记录时,可以发现波形会分裂成快慢两种波;并且在声源方向与地层快横波偏振方向成45°时,分裂的两种波形的速度更趋近于地层快慢横波波速,用此可反演地层各向异性值大小.使用单极子采集方式记录时,其波形能量与声源方向角β大致成cos²2β的关系,在声源方向角为45°时,其波形幅度最小,用此可判断与快横波偏振方向成45°角的方向.使用AC方向（与声源同方向）偶极子采集方式记录时,当声源方向与快横波偏振方向一致时,采集到的波形幅度最小;而与快横波偏振方向垂直时,波形幅度最大,所以通过偶极子采集方式记录的波形可以判断快横波偏振方向.因此,在强各向异性倾斜井中进行随钻四极子测量时,可以使用多模式采集方式来进行地层各向异性的反演.     

THE EXACT SEISMIC RESPONSE OF AN OCEAN AND A N-LAYER CONFIGURATION*

The space-time acoustic wave motion generated by an impulsive monopole source is calculated with the aid of the Cagniard-de Hoop technique. Two configurations with plane interfaces are discussed: an air/fluid/solid configuration with the source and the receiver located in the fluid layer; and a stack of n fluid layers between two acoustic half-spaces where the source and the receiver are located in the upper half-space. Synthetic seismograms are generated for the pressure of the reflected wavefield, using the source signature of an airgun.     

不规则形状垂直井孔中波传播的2.5维边界元模拟

本文给出了求解声波测井工作中具有任意形状的垂直井孔中波传播的波数域边界元公式。我们将问题看成是垂向均匀的二维介质,并沿垂直方向变换到离散波数域。通过与有限差分计算的频散曲线的比较验证了算法和程序的正确性。边界元方法可以处理任意形状的边界,作为初步应用,我们研究了垂向裂纹对井孔中波传播的影响。     

THE USE OF SEISMIC SHEAR WAVES AND COMPRESSIONAL WAVES FOR LITHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF SHALLOW SEDIMENTS*

From a great variety of in situ shear wave experiments, i.e., reflection, refraction and borehole surveys in the shallow sediments of the north German plains, several specific properties have been derived. Shear waves (S) differ from compressional waves (P) in that:

• 1 they are not affected by the degree of water saturation. Thus, they provide a better correlation between the velocity V_s and (solid) lithology;
• 2 they generally have lower frequencies, but shorter wavelength and, hence, a better resolution of thin layers;
• 3 they have lower absorption Q_s^?1 and hence a better penetration in partially saturated and gas-containing sediments than P-waves.

Correlations have been established between V_s and the confining pressure and between reduced V_s values and several lithological parameters like the grain size of sandy material. More lithological and hydrological information is obtained by using S- and P-wave surveys along the same profile. The best information on a sedimentological structure is obtained by the simultaneous observation of V_s, V_p, Q_s and Q_p.     

Velocities of compressional and shear waves in limestones

Carbonate rocks are important hydrocarbon reservoir rocks with complex textures and petrophysical properties (porosity and permeability) mainly resulting from various diagenetic processes (compaction, dissolution, precipitation, cementation, etc.). These complexities make prediction of reservoir characteristics (e.g. porosity and permeability) from their seismic properties very difficult. To explore the relationship between the seismic, petrophysical and geological properties, ultrasonic compressional‐ and shear‐wave velocity measurements were made under a simulated in situ condition of pressure (50 MPa hydrostatic effective pressure) at frequencies of approximately 0.85 MHz and 0.7 MHz, respectively, using a pulse‐echo method. The measurements were made both in vacuum‐dry and fully saturated conditions in oolitic limestones of the Great Oolite Formation of southern England. Some of the rocks were fully saturated with oil. The acoustic measurements were supplemented by porosity and permeability measurements, petrological and pore geometry studies of resin‐impregnated polished thin sections, X‐ray diffraction analyses and scanning electron microscope studies to investigate submicroscopic textures and micropores. It is shown that the compressional‐ and shear‐wave velocities (V_p and V_s, respectively) decrease with increasing porosity and that V_p decreases approximately twice as fast as V_s. The systematic differences in pore structures (e.g. the aspect ratio) of the limestones produce large residuals in the velocity versus porosity relationship. It is demonstrated that the velocity versus porosity relationship can be improved by removing the pore‐structure‐dependent variations from the residuals. The introduction of water into the pore space decreases the shear moduli of the rocks by about 2 GPa, suggesting that there exists a fluid/matrix interaction at grain contacts, which reduces the rigidity. The predicted Biot–Gassmann velocity values are greater than the measured velocity values due to the rock–fluid interaction. This is not accounted for in the Biot–Gassmann velocity models and velocity dispersion due to a local flow mechanism. The velocities predicted by the Raymer and time‐average relationships overestimated the measured velocities even more than the Biot model.     

SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD TO STUDY THE FOUNDATION ROCK OF A DAM*

Dynamic elastic moduli like E, μ, K and μ of the foundation rock of a dam have been determined by finding V_p- and V_s-velocities by seismic refraction with a hammer as source. Some parameters such as “fracture frequency” and “rock quality designation” (RQD) of the foundation rock have been derived using “average regression curves” and V_p-velocities. By comparing K/μ with V_p/V_s, a few locations showing weathered conditions have been demarcated. This compares well with RQD values of those locations.     

Measuring wave propagation characteristics in artificial sand-clay mixtures

Ultrasonic compressional (V _p ) and shear (V _s ) velocities have been measured on artificial sand-clay mixtures. The measurements were carried out in a drained triaxial load cell using a pulse transition method. The measuring device was equiped with a waveform storage facility. The investigated mixtures consisted mainly of kaolinite and quartz sand. Some mixtures also contained Na-montmorillonite, illites or quartz-flour. The acoustic behaviour was observed during a pressure increase up to 72 MPa vertical and 36 MPa horizontal pressure. At a given pressure,V _p andV _s in pure sand turned out to be similar to those in pure kaolinite. As predicted by the sand-clay model of Marion (1990), a velocity maximum corresponds to a minimum in total porosity. This porosity minimum marks the transition from a clayey sand to a sandy clay. It is not only reflected in bothV _p andV _s , but also in the quality of the received pulse. The effective tension of the received signal during 20µs after the first arrival, was used as an indication for P-wave pulse attenuation. This apparent attenuation decreases with increasing clay content and increases with increasing porosity. It is shown that clay mineralogy does not measurably affect wave velocities in clayey sands.     

VTI地层随钻四极子声波测井数值研究

数值计算了四极子声源在含钻铤竖直向横向各向同性(VTI)地层井孔中产生的各种模式波的频散曲线、激发幅度以及对各地层、钻铤参数的灵敏度,合成了四极子阵列波形,研究了快、慢速地层井孔中地层各向异性的存在对四极子波场的影响.数值计算结果表明,地层各向异性对钻铤波的影响很小,对于地层波的影响较大,且影响因素非常复杂.仅在一些特殊的频率点处,地层模式波的控制因素相对较为简单,如螺旋波的截止频率处.在慢速地层井孔中,最低阶的地层四极子波对距离井壁约2个井孔半径内的地层有明显的响应,可以对该范围内的地层横波进行层析成像.在快速地层井孔条件下,可以考虑采用与横波到时相同的波包来评价地层横波信息.该波包包含了井孔折射横波、F1和F2模式与井孔折射横波速度相接近的部分;利用该波包获得的地层横波速度基本不受地层各向异性的影响.在慢速地层情况下,螺旋波受地层各向异性的影响较大,建议在实际数据处理时,考虑采用基于数据的处理方法进行频散校正.     

Vp‐Vs relationship and amplitude variation with offset modelling of glauconitic greensand‡

The relationship between V_p and V_s may be used to predict V_s where only V_p is known. V_p/V_s is also used to identify pore fluids from seismic data and amplitude variation with offset analysis. Theoretical, physical, as well as statistical empirical V_p‐V_s relationships have been proposed for reservoir characterization when shear‐wave data are not available. In published work, the focus is primarily on the V_p‐V_s relationship of quartzitic sandstone. In order to broaden the picture we present V_p‐V_s relationships of greensand composed of quartz and glauconite by using data from the Paleocene greensand Nini oil field in the North Sea. A V_p‐V_s relationship derived from modelling is compared with empirical V_p‐V_s regressions from laboratory data as well as from log data. The accuracy of V_s prediction is quantified in terms of root‐mean‐square error. We find that the V_p‐V_s relationship derived from modelling works well for greensand shear‐wave velocity prediction. We model the seismic response of glauconitic greensand by using laboratory data from the Nini field. Our studies here reveal that brine‐saturated glauconitic greensand can have a similar seismic response to that from oil‐saturated quartzitic sandstone and that oil‐saturated strongly cemented greensand can have a similar amplitude variation with offset response to that from brine‐saturated weakly cemented greensand.     

Tomographic imaging of seismic velocity structure in and around the Onikobe volcanic area, northeastern Japan: implications for fluid distribution

We estimated three-dimensional P- (V_p) and S-wave velocity (V_s) and V_p/V_s structures in and around the Onikobe volcanic area, northeastern Japan, by local travel time tomography. We used travel time data from source and receiver pairs located within and outside the study area, which plays an important role in obtaining the optimum ray coverage and in elucidating the deeper structure more accurately. Detailed information on deeper structures is essential for imaging the complete volcanic system from the magmatic source zone through areas of shallow hydrothermal circulation. More than 50 000 travel time data for the P-waves and 35 000 for the S-waves were used to image the velocity structure. Our results show the following dominant features: (1) two conduits in the upper crust with low V_p and low V_s indicative of H₂O-rich fluid pathways: one lying beneath Naruko volcano, the other beneath the focal area of the 1962 Northern Miyagi earthquake (M6.5); (2) an underlying broad region in the lower crust with low V_p, low V_s and high V_p/V_s, suggestive of a zone of partial melt, from which the fluids in (1) are derived; and (3) low V_p/V_s areas near the surface of the Sanzugawa and Onikobe calderas, suggesting a diffuse vapor-saturated cap.     

Comparing shear-wave velocity profiles inverted from multichannel surface wave with borehole measurements

Recent field tests illustrate the accuracy and consistency of calculating near-surface shear (S)-wave velocities using multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW). S-wave velocity profiles (S-wave velocity vs. depth) derived from MASW compared favorably to direct borehole measurements at sites in Kansas, British Columbia, and Wyoming. Effects of changing the total number of recording channels, sampling interval, source offset, and receiver spacing on the inverted S-wave velocity were studied at a test site in Lawrence, Kansas. On the average, the difference between MASW calculated V_s and borehole measured V_s in eight wells along the Fraser River in Vancouver, Canada was less than 15%. One of the eight wells was a blind test well with the calculated overall difference between MASW and borehole measurements less than 9%. No systematic differences were observed in derived V_s values from any of the eight test sites. Surface wave analysis performed on surface data from Wyoming provided S-wave velocities in near-surface materials. Velocity profiles from MASW were confirmed by measurements based on suspension log analysis.     

横波测井的原理和方法研究

充液井孔中的偶极子声源能在周围岩层和土层中激发弯曲模式声波，它们在截止频率附近，沿井轴传播的速度为井壁介质的横波速度．使用可调声功率源使偶极子声波测井系统能适应软、硬地层的现场井孔测试．相关法算出横波声速，野外测试的结果和理论计算值相符．计算动弹模量和剪切模量，确定破碎层位置，可用于工程地质勘察中     

V p /V s anomalies in dilatant rock samples

Summary In a series of triaxial experiments we have measuredV _p ,V _s and volumetric strain simultaneously in dilating dry and saturated rocks. For the first time these data permit quantitative comparison of seismic velocities or their ratio and dilatant volumetric strain. In air-dry samplesV _p /V _s decreases by a few per cent at strains of 10^–3; in saturated materials with high pore pressure,V _p /V _s increases by a comparable amount. Decreases in seismic velocity ratio are difficult to generate in initially saturated rocks even with low pore pressures and at strain rates of 10^–4/sec. A liquid-vapor transition will not produce a significant drop inV _p /V _s . If dilatancy and fluid flow are responsible for seismic travel time anomalies prior to earthquakes, our results suggest that such anomalies will occur only in regions where pore fluid source to sink dimensions are of the order of 10 km or more, or in regions where the rocks are not saturated to begin with.