Modeling the multi-level plumbing system of the Changbaishan caldera from geochemical,mineralogical, Sr-Nd isotopic and integrated geophysical data

Changbaishan, an intraplate volcano, is characterized by an approximately 6 km wide summit caldera and last erupted in 1903. Changbaishan experienced a period of unrest between 2002 and 2006. The activity developed in three main stages, including shield volcano(basalts), cone-construction(trachyandesites to trachytes with minor basalts), and caldera-forming stages(trachytes to comendites). This last stage is associated with one of the more energetic eruptions of the last millennium on Earth, the 946 CE, VEI 7 Millennium Eruption(ME),which emitted over 100 km3 of pyroclastics. Compared to other active calderas, the plumbing system of Changbaishan and its evolution mechanisms remain poorly constrained. Here, we merge new whole-rock,glass, mineral, isotopic, and geobarometry data with geophysical data and present a model of the plumbing system. The results show that the volcano is characterized by at least three main magma reservoirs at different depths: a basaltic reservoir at the Moho/lower crust depth, an intermediate reservoir at 10–15 km depth, and a shallower reservoir at 0.5–3 km depth. The shallower reservoir was involved in the ME eruption, which was triggered by a fresh trachytic melt entering a shallower reservoir where a comenditic magma was stored. The trachytes and comendites originate from fractional crystallization processes and minor assimilation of upper crust material, while the less evolved melts assimilate lower crust material. Syn-eruptive magma mingling occurred during the ME eruption phase. The magma reservoirs of the caldera-forming stage partly reactivate those of the cone-construction stage. The depth of the magma storage zones is controlled by the layering of the crust.The plumbing system of Changbaishan is vertically extensive, with crystal mush reservoirs renewed by the replenishment of new trachytic to trachyandesitic magma from depth. Unlike other volcanoes, evidence of a basaltic recharge is lacking. The interpretation of the signals preceding possible future eruptions should consider the multi-level nature of the Changbaishan plumbing system. A new arrival of magma may destabilize a part of or the entire system, thus triggering eruptions of different sizes and styles. The reference model proposed here for Changbaishan represents a prerequisite to properly understand periods of unrest to potentially anticipate future volcanic eruptions and to identify the mechanisms controlling the evolution of the crust below volcanoes.     

Modes of thickening of analogue weak lithospheres

Several compressional contexts, such as those involving juvenile or thickened crust, are expected to be associated with rather hot lithospheres whose mechanical behaviour remains poorly documented. In this paper, we present a series of analogue models dedicated to compression of lithospheres characterized by a thin upper brittle crust overlying a weak ductile crust and a ductile sub-Moho mantle. The models show that (1) deformation is controlled by the ductile layers that undergo distributed thickening, (2) thrust systems are limited to the upper brittle crust, (3) thrusting induces burial and stacking of upper crust pop-downs. The overall deformation patterns can be basically interpreted in terms of pop-down thrusting of the brittle crust and pure-shear type ductile flow of crust and mantle. Moreover, the models show that the sinking of supracrustal units does not require inverse density profiles but can be simply driven by compression. Model deformation patterns are consistent with those shared by many ancient belts, including not only Archaean granite–greenstone belts, but also more generally Paleoproterozoic ones. They provide also insights on deformation modes that may characterize modern thickened and abnormally hot domains like High Plateaus.     

塔里木盆地碳酸盐岩油气聚集带

海相碳酸盐岩储层多类型及非均质性强的特点,决定了其油气聚集带与以往陆相盆地碎屑岩油气聚集带的控制因素有显著差异,碳酸盐岩的油气聚集并不是简单地受二级构造带的控制。通过分析塔里木盆地已发现碳酸盐岩油气藏,其储层发育受大气淡水风化淋滤作用、沉积作用及各种成岩作用、深部流体改造作用等因素的控制。据储层成因类型及其横向分布特征,将塔里木盆地碳酸盐岩油气聚集带划分为:不整合与古风化壳型、生物建造礁-滩型、白云岩内幕型及深部流体改造型。不同类型的碳酸盐岩油气聚集带主要分布于塔北隆起、塔中隆起及巴楚断隆等古隆起的不同部位。由于不同碳酸盐岩油气聚集带上储集层成因机制不同,导致其储集空间、储集性能、油气藏类型及分布等均有所不同。     

Accumulation models for coalbed methane in medium- to high-rank coals: examples from the southern Qinshui Basin and southeastern Ordos Basin

The majority of known coalbed methane (CBM) production worldwide comes primarily from high-abundance CBM-enrichment areas or ‘fairways.’ The high-abundance CBM-enrichment areas are primarily characterised by large CBM resources with high single-well productions. CBM accumulation areas from the medium- to high-rank coals in the southern Qinshui Basin and the Hancheng CBM fields in the Ordos Basin were investigated based on regional geological analyses and physical analogue experiments. The results show that gas contents in the study areas increase with depths over the range from approximately 300 to 800 m, while permeabilities generally decrease with depths. Intervals with optimal gas content and permeability exist at a moderate depth along an inclined coal seam under the coupled control of temperature and stress. Brittle–ductile transition deformation increases the permeability and the pore-specific surface areas of coals. The gas content and permeability of the CBM reservoirs are shown to be two key factors determining the formation of high-abundance CBM areas. The coupling of gas enrichment and high permeability provides a favourable combination for CBM accumulation and high production. Combining CBM exploration and development practices in the study areas with physical analogue experiments, two CBM-enrichment models for medium- to high-rank coal have been recognised for different geological conditions, including (1) the model controlled by the depth in the slope zone and (2) the model controlled by the coal brittle and ductile in the deformation zones.     

准噶尔盆地西泉地区石炭系火山岩型油藏形成及分布

准噶尔盆地西泉地区在构造上位于北三台凸起西斜坡,是有利油气聚集区。虽然已取得了一些勘探成果,但该区油藏控制因素复杂,纵横向分布规律认识不清,致使探明程度低、勘探难度大。利用钻井、测井、录井、试油、岩芯分析化验等资料,结合地震资料,查明了该区石炭系储层岩石学特征、储层特征。研究结果表明:西泉地区石炭系火山岩主要为火山熔岩类、火山碎屑岩类;火山岩储层物性北部较差,南部较好,有利储层主要是喷发相火山角砾岩、溢流相安山岩、英安岩等。该区油藏分布的主要控制因素:1)垂向上油藏主要分布于风化壳附近; 2)岩性的侧向变化控制了油藏的平面分布范围; 3)不整合面的发育与油藏的分布关系密切。进一步阐明了研究区油藏的分布规律,油气主要聚集于不整合面附近,且呈北东南西向条带状分布。油层的纵向分布与不整合面的风化淋滤带的深度有关,南北差异较大,储层的非均质性影响油藏的连片分布。     

西藏罗布莎豆荚状铬铁矿成矿演化的构造过程

摘要：通过对罗布莎铬铁矿区的构造解析,揭示出了豆荚状铬铁矿的成矿演化规律。由地幔韧性剪切带和脆－韧性剪切带组成的含铬剪切带是成矿期构造,被造山期发生的变形分解作用和脆性断裂作用改造,成矿演化经历了从上地幔到上地壳所发生的５个构造变形相的转换,即熔融流变变形相→地幔韧性剪切变形相→壳幔脆→韧性剪切变形相→塑性挤压变形相→脆性断裂变形相,可划分为中生代改造成矿和新生代矿床改造两个阶段,并概括为包含６个变形世代的构造成矿序列。     

塔中北斜坡富油气区油气分布规律与富集主控因素研究

塔里木盆地塔中北斜坡奥陶系油气藏类型多样、油气性质变化大、油气水分布复杂。通过对塔中北斜坡大量单井及其生产动态的分析解剖,结合分析化验资料,深入探讨了富油气区的流体分布特征、断裂发育特征、储层差异性以及典型高产井和出水井的对比,揭示了油气分布规律与控制因素。鹰山组顶部的风化壳型不整合面在垂向上控制了储层的发育深度范围和储层质量;平面上储层的非均质性是导致油气分布差异的重要原因。断裂引起的局部高差对流体聚集存在明显影响,使断裂上盘高部位更倾向于富油气,并发现断裂对储层改造强烈,特别是走滑断裂作为油气运移通道对油气分布具有重要的控制作用,决定了不同区域的古油藏在晚喜山期遭受气侵的强度,控制了不同相态油气藏的分布;奥陶系鹰山组上部发育的致密段对古油藏的保存具有积极的作用。该认识对相似地区碳酸盐岩油气富集规律研究及勘探开发具重要的参考价值。     

塔里木盆地库车坳陷致密砂岩-膏泥岩储盖组合断裂带内部结构及与天然气成藏关系

本文在野外观察描述基础上,系统分析了库车坳陷致密砂岩-膏泥岩储盖组合内断裂变形机制,研究表明:断裂在膏泥岩内变形机制取决于埋藏深度决定的脆塑性,膏泥岩在浅埋条件下处于脆性变形阶段,形成断层泥充填的贯通型断裂,垂向封闭能力很差;膏泥岩在较深埋条件下处于脆-塑性变形阶段,形成涂抹型断裂带,伴随断距增加,涂抹逐渐失去连续性,连续的膏岩涂抹形成有效封闭,一旦失去连续性,油气将穿越盖层垂向散失;膏泥岩在深埋条件下处于塑性变形阶段,膏泥岩限制断裂穿层。因此,塑性膏泥岩和脆-塑性膏泥岩在涂抹连续情况下,能够形成有效封闭。断裂变形时储层已经致密化,抬升作用和储层超压导致断裂变形机制以破裂为主,断层核为断层角砾岩,破碎带发育大量裂缝,为油气垂向运移通道,侧向封闭依靠岩性对接。这种岩性对接封闭导致天然气聚集模式具有3个典型特征:一是天然气紧邻区域性盖层分布,即天然气层之上为区域性盖层;二是区域性盖层与储层对接形成有效封闭,因此天然气主要分布在气源断裂上升盘;三是烃柱高度取决于断距大小,圈闭范围内最小断距决定烃柱高度和气-水界面分布。     

构造转换带储集体发育的主控因素——以准噶尔盆地腹部侏罗系为例

本文以准噶尔盆地腹部侏罗系储集砂体分布特征为例,探讨构造变换带优质储层的形成机制与变形特征,开展构造转换带的构造-沉积-成岩作用等对物源、砂体、岩石物理等的控制作用的研究。盆地构造转换带控制主要物源与水系,进而控制沉积体系的发育特征;构造转换带与坡折带共同控制沉积相带展布;构造转换带、坡折及沉积层序格架联合控制砂体时空展布及其储层质量:在大的构造转换带、高坡降比的坡折等条件下,在低位域沉积期发育冲积扇、辫状河和曲流河沉积等,形成大规模的储集体,在高位域沉积期发育较大规模三角洲沉积等。对构造转换带的综合研究,可深化对坳陷盆地沉积体系发育规律认识,进而提高对油气储集体的预测精度,对陆相湖盆沉积学及其油气勘探开发具有重要指导和参考价值。     

华北中地壳滑脱面及其活动分区的天然地震研究

华北的上部地壳以脆性变形为主,下部地壳以韧性伸展为主,两种截然不同的变形状态却有着相同伸展方向、相同伸展量,使得上下地壳之间因差异运动而形成一个区域性界面-华北中地壳顶部滑脱面。以这个滑脱面为底边界发育起来的上地壳的结构构造,是控制华北盆山格局、基底构造发育形成的直接原因。华北构造是地壳脆性域“薄皮”伸展变形。滑脱面在华北基本上是连续分布的,呈断坡-断坪状,南北分带、东西分片,深度为12~22 km,一般为15~18 km,可识别出11个层状拆离区;上地壳以断块方式变形,断块的位置、形态及活动方式受滑脱面的断坡-断坪产状、与滑脱方向垂直的断叉线和与滑脱方向平行的调整断裂的组合控制,可识别出3个主裂陷轴、2条主断叉线和3条主调整断裂带。     

Thermal modelling of the Larderello geothermal field (Tuscany,Italy)

We present a 3-D thermal model of the Larderello geothermal field (Tuscany) to evaluate (1) the extent and contribution of the heat transfer mechanisms (conduction vs. convection) at the intermediate-upper crust levels, (2) the variability of the heat and mass fluxes entering from below and (3) the crucial role of the formation permeability. The model, composed by three main layers, considers the upper 10 km of the crust to better constrain the simulations with experimental data from borehole, fluid inclusion studies and hypocentral distributions. Several sets of simulations were carried out with different bottom boundary temperatures and different formation permeabilities for the two deeper layers. The results indicate that the present temperature (T) and pressure distributions in the Larderello field require deep reservoir rocks with higher permeability than the overlying capping units and underlying intermediate crust. Permeability values of 1 mDarcy for the reservoir rocks are enough to allow fluid convection, if the temperature at 10 km depth is as high as 500 ± 50°C. The presence of localized zones with formation permeability 50–100 times higher than the surrounding rocks strongly favours the migration of over-pressurized fluids, which episodically break through the overburden, feeding the presently exploited geothermal fields.     

用物理模拟实验研究大陆伸展构造

本文以岩石圈多层构造为基础,按照下地壳和岩石圈地幔塑性流动控制上地壳构造变形的思想,采用脆延性双层模型进行伸展构造模拟实验。模拟结果表明,延性层流动速度比脆性层运动速度大,对脆性层具有牵引作用;受挤压和边界流动控制,模型构造变形出现伸展区、过渡区和挤压区,其中以伸展区的"地堑-地垒"式伸展构造为主。模型表面标志点位移表明,模型脆性层变形量主要集中在断裂发育部位,而断裂之间块体变形量基本可以忽略不计。此外,实验中还观察到在脆性层断裂部位出现延性层被动上隆现象。      

Rheological and physical characteristics of crustal-scaled materials for centrifuge analogue modelling

We characterize a set of analogue materials used for centrifuge analogue modelling simulating deformation at different levels in the crust simultaneously. Specifically, we improve the rheological characterization in the linear viscoelastic region of materials for the lower and middle crust, and cohesive synthetic sands without petroleum-binding agents for the upper crust. Viscoelastic materials used in centrifuge analogue modelling demonstrate complex dynamic behaviour, so viscosity alone is insufficient to determine if a material will be an effective analogue. Two series of experiments were conducted using an oscillating bi-conical plate rheometer to measure the storage and loss moduli and complex viscosities of several modelling clays and silicone putties. Tested materials exhibited viscoelastic and shear-thinning behaviour. The silicone putties and some modelling clays demonstrated viscous-dominant behaviour and reached Newtonian plateaus at strain rates < 0.5 × 10⁻² s⁻¹, while other modelling clays demonstrated elastic-dominant power-law relationships. Based on these results, the elastic-dominant modelling clay is recommended as an analogue for basement cratons. Inherently cohesive synthetic sands produce fine-detailed fault and fracture patterns, and developed thrust, strike-slip, and extensional faults in simple centrifuge test models. These synthetic sands are recommended as analogues for the brittle upper crust. These new results increase the accuracy of scaling analogue models to prototype. Additionally, with the characterization of three new materials, we propose a complete lithospheric profile of analogue materials for centrifuge modelling, allowing future studies to replicate a broader range of crustal deformation behaviours.     

Fault slip and Coulomb stress variations around a pressured magma reservoir: consequences on seismicity and magma intrusion

Pressure variations in a magma reservoir may cause deformation at the surface and a redistribution of the stress in the surrounding rock. In this study, we use two‐dimensional numerical models and elaborate how magma chamber inflation and deflation affect the stress field around and surface displacement. We test how a pre‐existing normal fault near the magma reservoir may influence the pattern of stress. We demonstrate the possibility of initiating both normal and reverse slip on faults during the inflation of the magma reservoir. The Coulomb failure stress changes are calculated during the periods of pressure variation. An increase of Coulomb failure stress can be predicted above and below the magma chamber during increasing magma chamber pressure that may encourage earthquakes. This process can produce cracks and fault growth encouraging magma propagation along the cracked zone. A different distribution of the stress change is expected in the case of subsequent deflation of the overpressured magma reservoir. In this case, seismicity is expected on a plane at equal depth than the magma chamber, laterally offset from the extent of the magma chamber. Magma could propagate laterally from the magma reservoir into zones where cracks have been generated, but only if the resolved shear stress on the fault is small compared with the excess magma pressure.     

Differences of Hydrocarbon Enrichment between the Upper and the Lower Structural Layers in the Tazhong Paleouplift

<正>The Tazhong paleouplift is divided into the upper and the lower structural layers,bounded by the unconformity surface at the top of the Ordovician carbonate rock.The reservoirs in the two layers from different parts vary in number,type and reserves,but the mechanism was rarely researched before.Therefore,an explanation of the mechanism will promote petroleum exploration in Tazhong paleouplift.After studying the evolution and reservoir distribution of the Tazhong paleouplift,it is concluded that the evolution hi late Caledonian,late Hercynian and Himalayan periods resulted in the upper and the lower structural layers.It is also defined that in the upper structural layer,structural and stratigraphic overlap reservoirs are developed at the top and the upper part of the paleouplift,which are dominated by oil reservoirs,while for the lower structural layer,lithological reservoirs are developed in the lower part of the paleouplift,which are dominated by gas reservoirs,and more reserves are discovered in the lower structural layer than the upper. Through a comparative analysis of accumulation conditions of the upper and the lower structural layers,the mechanism of enrichment differences is clearly explained.The reservoir and seal conditions of the lower structural layer are better than those of the upper layer,which is the reason why more reservoirs have been found in the former.The differences in the carrier system types,trap types and charging periods between the upper and the lower structural layers lead to differences in the reservoir types and distribution.An accumulation model is established for the Tazhong paleouplift.For the upper structural layer,the structural reservoirs and the stratigraphic overlap reservoirs are formed at the upper part of the paleouplift,while for the lower structural layer,the weathering crust reservoirs are formed at the top,the reef-flat reservoirs are formed on the lateral margin,the karst and inside reservoirs are formed in the lower part of the paleouplift.     

胶东昆嵛山花岗岩的特征、成因及其与金矿的关系

昆嵛山花岗岩是牟平—乳山金矿成矿带的围岩，在其成因和定位时代上长期存在争议。本文对岩体地质和地球化学特征进行了系统研究，并就岩体成因及其与金矿的关系进行了讨论。作者认为，昆嵛山花岗岩是在中生代由岩浆缓慢冷凝结晶形成的大型复式岩基，并非交代成因。它由垛崮顶片麻状花岗闪长岩（１４７Ｍａ）、八门邹家斑状花岗闪长岩（１３５Ｍａ）、瓦善—水道弱片麻状二长花岗岩及五爪山片麻状含榴二长花岗岩（１２０Ｍａ）组成，成分具贫铝富碱的特点。岩浆来源于中下地壳中酸性变质火山岩系部分熔融形成的岩浆，其形成温度为６５０—７５０℃。岩体经历了韧性和脆性变形作用，不同方向的片麻状构造是岩浆结晶期韧性变形作用的结果。脆性变形形成的断裂和破碎带是本区主要的导矿和容矿构造。花岗岩定位、韧和脆性变形作用与金矿成矿作用有十分密切的关系     

Coupling Effects on Gold Mineralization of Deep and Shallow Structures in the Northwestern Jiaodong Peninsula, Eastern China

For understanding the possible deep-seated processes and geodynamic constrains on gold mineralization, comprehensive physicochemical and geochemical studies of gold mineralization have been undertaken within the paleo-lithosphere framework during the metailogenic epoch from the northwestern part of the Jiaodong Peninsula in this paper. A general image of the paleo-crust has been remained although it has been superimposed and reformed by post-metailogenic tectonic movements. The gold ore deposits occur usually in local uplifts and gradient belts featuring a turn from steep to gentle in granite-metamorphic contact zones, relative uplifts of gradient zones of the Curier isothermal interfaces, depressions of the Moho discontinuity and areas where depth contours are cut by isotherms perpendicularly. Gold mineralization and lithogenesis are characterized by high temperature, low pressure and high strength of thermal flux. The depth of mineralization ranges from 0.8 to 4.5 km. The depth of the top interface of the granitic complex in the metallogenic epoch is about 3 km. There is a low-velocity layer （LVL） at the bottom of the upper crust with a depth close to 19.5 km, which may be a detachment belt in the crust. The appearance of the LVL indicates the existence of paleo-hyperthermal fluid or relics of molten magma chambers, which reflects partial melting within the crust during the diagenetic and metallogenic epochs and the superposition effects of strike-slip shearing of the Taulu fault zone. The subsidence of the Moho is probably attributed to the coupling process of the NW-SE continental collision between North China and the Yangtze Block and the strike-slip movement of the Tanlu fault accompanied with underplating of mantle magma in the northwestern part of the Jiaodong Peninsula. The underplating of mantle magma may result in partial melting and make granite magma transfer upwards. This is favorable for the migration of metallogenic materials from deep to shallow to be enriched to form deposits. Coupling interactions between the strike-slip of the Taulu fault, the underplating of mantle magma, partial melting within the crust, and hyperthermal fluid, etc. may be the important factors controlling the gold mineralization and spatial structures in the metailogenic system.     

碳酸盐岩古风化壳储集层(体)研究

根据多年来对鄂尔多斯地区和塔里木盆地有关油气田的研究成果和近年来的国内外相关资料,用“古风化壳储集层(体)”的观点系统详细地阐述了碳酸盐岩古风化壳储集层(体)的形成、岩相、岩溶、地球化学、储集性能、演化等特点。古风化壳具有岩溶分带性特点,是一个由表生成岩作用形成的特有的地质体,因而,不等同于不整合面和侵蚀面。典型的碳酸盐岩古风化壳储集层(体)可划分为4个带：破碎带、渗流带、混合带、潜流带,其演化与沉积旋回、海平面的振荡运动和局部构造运动有密切的关系。指出可以利用碳酸盐岩古风化壳储集层(体)测井曲线和地震勘探的响应来识别溶洞和裂缝;运用模糊数学方法对其进行分区、分带的评价,运用多学科和多种技术方法对其进行研究和预测。     

珠江口盆地白云凹陷新生代构造演化动力学

白云凹陷构造演化史的研究对在白云凹陷开展油气勘探和深水沉积研究具有重要的意义。通过对断裂与沉积结构平面和剖面特点的分析,结合岩浆活动特点,文中提出白云凹陷是一个复式地堑,推测这种结构特点与凹陷下地壳的强烈韧性减薄和颈缩变形有关,表现为热岩石圈的伸展。其发育机制推测与白云凹陷位于构造转换带上有关,特殊的构造位置使白云凹陷成为强烈构造变形区,岩石圈地壳强烈减薄,伴随伸展过程和地幔上涌,脆性地壳或上地幔中部分熔融物质的出现导致岩石圈强度的急剧降低,在区域伸展应力场下以韧性流变方式减薄。岩浆在构造转换带下聚集并发育主岩浆房,由于白云凹陷南北边缘没有发育正断裂系统,岩浆主要沿垂直伸展的方向运移,因此在珠琼运动一幕和二幕南南东向伸展应力作用下,岩浆向白云凹陷的东部和西部运移至北西向基底深大断裂处,那里由于北西向断裂表现为左行张剪性质而成为压力较低的地区,从而成为岩浆上涌和侵位的地方。在岩浆聚集的地区,活动岩浆体附近的脆性变形被分散的韧性变形所取代,因此在凹陷的东北和西南两个角上,发育了张性和张剪性小断裂群,由于热岩石圈弹性较差,白云凹陷长期持续沉降。白云凹陷的断裂活动和沉积演化史还受到南海海盆扩张活动的影响。     

GPS观测的活动断裂滑动速率及其对现今大陆动力作用的制约

活动断裂的滑动速率是晚第四纪构造变形的定量描述 ,是制约和研究现今大陆动力过程的重要基础数据。地震地质学研究给出主要活动断裂的长期和平均运动水平 ,横跨断裂的GPS观测能够提供断裂的现今滑动速率。文中利用重大科学工程“中国地壳运动观测网络”的 10 0 0多个GPS观测站的复测数据 ,计算中国大陆主要活动断裂的现今滑动速率。发现主要活动断裂的GPS滑动速率与晚第四纪滑动速率在运动方式和运动量上是大体一致的。从GPS观测到的断层滑动速率来看 ,中国大陆的大多数活动断裂的速率都在 10mm/a之下 ,而没有类似于板块边界的大于 2 0 30mm/a的滑动速率。这种现象意味着整个中国大陆的构造变形可能是分布式的 ,而不是仅仅集中在少数几条大型活动构造带上 ,沿主要活动断裂的刚性块体滑移可能不是构造变形的主要方式。现今构造变形的分块运动图像可能只是脆性上地壳的变形方式 ,中下地壳和上地幔的运动则以连续变形为特征 ,从下部驱动脆性上地壳的变形和运动 ,使得上部地壳的变形既表现出分块特征 ,又发生块内的变形。“连续变形”理论模型能够更好地描述大陆内部的构造变形。