The geology and micropalaeontology of the Channel Tunnel

Micropalaeontology and biostratigraphy have been, and still are, a vital part of the Channel Tunnel Project. The use of foraminiferal assemblages and the determination of an accurate biozonation have given the tunnel builders a comprehensive view of the geological succession below the English Channel between Dover and Calais. This work, which was begun in 1958, has continued intermittently to the present day.     

Three-dimensional numerical modelling of falling rock protection barriers

This paper presents a new numerical strategy for the design and verification of flexible falling rock barriers: passive protection measures for risk mitigation of potentially unstable rock slopes. The key point of the proposed approach is that notwithstanding the complexity of the simulated phenomenon, the resulting highly non-linear, dynamic model is simple and produces an accurate prediction of all the relevant parameters for barrier design, such as anchorage forces, net panel elongations and residual heights.The modelling procedure has been assessed using detailed experimental data obtained from a set of full-scale tests on three barrier prototypes with various energy absorption capacities (5000 kJ, 3000 kJ and 500 kJ). By comparison with the experimental results, the numerical model has shown to be reliable in capturing very accurately the barrier response to a block impact. Consequently, this method can be extended to investigate the behaviour of flexible falling rock protection barriers under conditions different from those encountered in full-scale tests. Therefore, the numerical procedure can be regarded as an effective tool used for designing and testing these structures.     

高速远程滑坡超前冲击气浪三维动力学分析

为研究沟谷多级折射高速远程滑坡超前冲击气浪的特征,以牛圈沟滑坡三维地形形态为原型,采用CFD软件,引入Voellmy准则定义运动阻力,在反演碎屑流运动全过程的同时,对其冲击气浪的流场特征进行了数值模拟,分析其形成的动力学机制。结果表明：(1) 牛圈沟滑坡从启动到停止历时为119 s,最大速度出现在滑体内部靠近前缘处,峰值分别为14 s的52 m/s、27 s的55 m/s和50 s的49 m/s。(2) 气浪速度的最大值50 s时为38 m/s,其压强的最大值达657 Pa,相当于11级暴风。(3) 当碎屑流前方出现高大的障壁时,来不及扩散的高压气流产生极为明显的压强梯度;当其前方遇跌坎或翻越山脊冲向山坡下方在其速度瞬间增大的同时,强烈压缩前方空气并导致其压强值局部出现陡增。     

长江三峡工程构造应力场数值模拟

本文分别进行了长江三峡工程区域1/100万现今构造应力场有限元数值模拟和长江三峡工程库首区1/50万燕山期、新构造期和现今构造应力场演化规律模拟和分析。区域模拟结果表明:坝区不存在发生大于5级地震的构造应力场背景,库首区模拟结果表明:坝区不存在发生大于3级地震的构造应力场背景。     

Three-dimensional numerical modelling of the behaviour of a pile subjected to cyclic lateral loading

This paper presents a finite element simulation of the behaviour of a vertical pile subjected to a cyclic lateral loading. First, the choice of a suitable constitutive model is discussed. The analytical solution of the model equations for a monotonic triaxial compression is given, and the model is compared with monotonic and cyclic triaxial tests on dry Fontainebleau sand. Simulations of tests carried out on a model pile with the geotechnical centrifuge of the French Public Works Research Laboratory (LCPC) were then performed with the model parameters derived from the triaxial tests. Results are in good agreement with experiments.     

Three-dimensional seismic modelling of crustal structure in the TESZ region based on POLONAISE''97 data

This paper reports the results of 3-D tomographic modelling of crustal structure in the Trans European Suture Zone region (TESZ) of Poland, eastern Germany and Lithuania. The data are the product of a large-scale seismic experiment POLONAISE'97, which was carried out in 1997. This experiment was designed to provide some 3-D coverage. The TESZ forms the boundary between the Precambrian crustal terranes of the East European Craton (EEC) and the younger Phanerozoic terranes to the southwest. The 3-D results generally confirm the earth models derived by earlier 2-D analyses, but also add some important details as well as a 3-D perspective on the structure. The velocity model obtained shows substantial horizontal variations of crustal structure across the study area. Seismic modelling shows low (<6.1 km/s) velocities suggesting the presence of sedimentary rocks down to a depth of about 20 km in the Polish basin. The shape of the basin in the vicinity of the profile P4 shows significant asymmetry. Three-dimensional modelling also allowed tracing of horizontal irregularities of the basin shape as well as variations of the Moho depth not only along profiles, but also between them. The slice between P2 and P4 profiles shows about 10-km variations of the Moho over a 100-km interval. The crustal thickness varies from about 30 km in SW, beneath the Palaeozoic platform, to about 42 km beneath East European Craton in NE. High seismic velocities of about 6.6 km/s were found in the depth range 2–10 km, which coincides with K trzyn anorthosite massif. The results of this 3-D seismic modelling of the POLONAISE'97 data will ultimately be supplemented by inversion of seismic data from previous experiments.     

The Channel Tunnel: Geostatistical prediction of the geological conditions and its validation by the reality

Geometric modeling of the geological layers in the Channel Tunnel area employed local variography and kriging for computing meaningful predictions and confidence intervals. The results were used to design the alignment of the tunnel, and tunneling was completed on March 28, 1991, 1 month ahead of the initial schedule. Data from 85 borehole pairs drilled during tunneling enable the geostatistical prediction to be compared with the reality, which is seldom possible. They fully validate the geostatistical approach.     

Numerical modelling of railway ballast at the particle scale

The paper describes the development of a technique to simulate triaxial tests on specimens of railway ballast numerically at the particle scale and its validation with reference to physical test data. The ballast particles were modelled using potential particles and the well‐known discrete element method. The shapes of these elemental particles, the particle size distribution and the number of particles (N = 2800) in each numerical triaxial specimen all matched closely to the real ballast material being modelled. Confining pressures were applied to the specimen via a dynamic triangulation of the outer particle centroids. A parametric study was carried out to investigate the effects on the simulation of timestep, strain rate, damping, contact stiffness and inter‐particle friction. Finally, a set of parameters was selected that provided the best fit to experimental triaxial data, with very close agreement of mobilized friction and volumetric strain behaviour. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

On the use of airborne gravimetry in gravity field modelling: Experiences from the AGMASCO project

Important areas of the earth are still not covered by accurate gravity measurements. The gravity field may be determined by using different techniques but airborne gravity surveying is becoming the most powerful tool available today.One of the main problems in airborne gravity is the separation of the vertical accelerations acting on the airborne platform from the natural gravity signal. With the advances in DGPS techniques new prospects arise for gravity field recovery which are of great importance for geodesy, geophysics oceanography and satellite navigation. Furthermore, airborne gravimetric measurements depend not only on the determination of the position but also on the attitude of the aircraft. Inertial systems can provide attitude as well as information on short-term accelerations, which are more problematic for the gravimeter. A proper integration of these systems may allow a further improvement of the whole technique where the quality of both the accelerometers and the gyros is the key sensing element. In the scope of the MAST III Project AGMASCO, an airborne geoid mapping system was successfully implemented in different aeroplanes. The characteristics of the aeroplane and the flight parameters play a major role in airborne measurements.Within AGMASCO the airborne system was applied both in a close and an open ocean (Skagerrak, Fram Strait and Azores) areas. The system proved to be a powerful tool in a variety of conditions. The results obtained showed that an accuracy better than 2mGal over 5 to 6 kilometres can be achieved.This was proven by comparison of the airborne data with ground truth and satellite data. This accuracy makes the system interesting for use in various applications including geophysical exploitation.Different hardware installations were experienced and the methods validated. Recovery of the gravity values directly from measurements with the Lacoste & Romberg air/sea gravimeter and from measurements with the inertial sensors was analysed. The potential of these sensors to recover gravity and the experience gained within this project are reported here.     

Three-dimensional modelling of an isolated carbonate buildup (Triassic, Dolomites, Italy)

The Middle Triassic carbonate buildups of the Dolomites show facies similarities with mud mounds but display apparent architectural elements of flat‐topped carbonate platforms. In order to test whether the facies similarities to mounds are also reflected in the internal buildup architecture, a three‐dimensional modelling study of the Middle Triassic Monte Cernera buildup has been carried out. The Cernera buildup exhibits apparent geometries suggesting a mounded platform in the lower and uppermost part of the buildup, separated by an interval with apparent platform geometry and a retrogradational platform interior, which is difficult to explain with a flat top platform model. For this purpose, a number of three‐dimensional models were constructed using the three‐dimensional modelling programme petrel ^TM. Key geological horizons were constructed based on outcrop measurements, intermediate horizons were calculated in the modelling program, and the intersections of the modelled layers with a digital topography surface were displayed and compared with outcrop photographs. The models were refined stepwise until a best fit with the actual bedding architecture was achieved. The best fit model shows that the mounded geometries in the lower and uppermost part of the buildup are real architectural elements. The intermediate platform stage, about 1·5 km across, had probably retained a mounded top with a relief of up to 50 m, which is difficult to distinguish from an absolutely flat top, but necessary to explain the retrogradational platform interior. The present study shows that Monte Cernera was dominated by mounded geometries at all stages of platform development. The mounded geometry plus facies data suggest that the platform is a deep‐water accumulation, below the zone of intense wave energy, but within the photic zone. The Cernera represents a tropical buildup type, which did not have the capacity to grow into continuously wave‐swept environments because of the small size and the absence of a wave‐resistant energy barrier. Such buildup types are probably common after major crises in earth history, when reef organisms were virtually absent.     

西藏铁格隆南铜(金)矿床三维模型分析与深部预测

铁格隆南铜(金)矿床是近年来在班公湖-怒江成矿带西段多龙矿集区新发现的超大型Cu(Au-Ag)矿床。本文针对铁格隆南矿区深部找矿问题,以现代成矿地质理论和多元地学信息综合分析技术为支撑,以构建矿床找矿模型为指导,依托数据库技术、3S技术、三维建模与可视化技术及地质统计学理论与方法,开展基于矿产地质、地球物理、地球化学等成矿条件及找矿标志的三维地质实体建模与矿化异常三维空间重构,将铁格隆南矿床的预测评价研究拓展到三维空间,揭示了区内成矿地质特征、地球化学及地球物理异常表征,据此探讨了矿床的成因及矿体分布特征。并在此基础上,开展了矿区的地质-地球化学-地球物理综合信息分析与预测评价,以期减少单一信息多解性和成矿条件不确定性,为铁格隆南矿区深部找矿工作提供参考。研究结果表明:在地质找矿模型指导下,基于深部成矿空间三维结构重构基础上的三维地质、地球物理、地球化学异常信息提取与综合分析,可以有效的识别成矿地质体和矿致异常信息,实现深部矿产资源靶区空间定位预测,为深部找矿预测研究提供了新思路。综合分析结果显示铁格隆南矿床深部找矿潜力巨大。     

Application of numerical modelling in the design of a full‐scale heated Tunnel Sealing Experiment

The Tunnel Sealing Experiment (TSX) was a full‐scale in situ demonstration of technology for constructing nearly water tight‐seals in excavations through crystalline rock deep below the surface of the earth. The experiment has been carried out at Atomic Energy of Canada Limited's (AECL's) Underground Research Laboratory near Lac du Bonnet, Canada, in support of international programs for geologic disposal of radioactive waste. The TSX, with partners from Canada, Japan, France and the United States, was carried under conditions of high pressure (up to 4 MPa) and elevated temperature (up to 85°C). Comparing numerical model predictions with eight years of data collected from approximately 900 sensors was an important component of this experiment. Model of Transport In Fractured/porous Media (MOTIF), a finite element computer program developed by AECL for simulating fully coupled or uncoupled fluid flow, solute transport and heat transport, was used to model both the ambient temperature and heated phases of the TSX. The plan to heat the water in the TSX to 85°C was developed using model predictions and a comparison of simulated results with measurements during heating of the water in the TSX to about 50°C. The three‐dimensional MOTIF simulations were conducted in parallel with axisymmetric modelling using Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua (FLAC), which computed the heat loss from pipes that carried the heated water through the rock to and from the experiment. The numerical model was initially used to develop a plan for operation of the experiment heaters, and then subsequently used to predict temperatures and hydraulic heads in the TSX bulkhead seals and surrounding rock. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Three-dimensional modelling of a Holocene tufa system in the Lathkill Valley, north Derbyshire, using ground-penetrating radar

Unlithified and partly lithified carbonate sequences are ideally suited to the application of ground‐penetrating radar (GPR), augmented by percussion augering and shallow seismic techniques, all tied to present‐day topography using global positioning system (GPS) methods. This methodology provides the first clear information on the distribution and geometry of lithofacies within buried tufa complexes. The approach has been applied to a thick succession of Holocene tufas filling a gorge site along a 3·5‐km length of the River Lathkill, north Derbyshire. Earlier studies have demonstrated the presence of up to 16 m of tufas and sapropels associated with two transverse tufa dams (barrages). These strata have been accumulating throughout the Holocene, although tufa developments at present are of minor extent. Internal tufa morphologies are recorded by GPR as ‘bright’, laterally continuous reflections for lithified, concretionary and lithoclast‐rich horizons. The ‘brightest’ reflectors occur within well‐cemented barrages and delineate core areas and prograding buttress zones. In contrast, unlithified lime muds and sapropels produce low‐contrast reflections. Lithostratigraphic control and depth calibration of the GPR profiles was provided by percussion augering at selected sites. Six distinct lithofacies and four secondary barrages are identified in the study. Constructional and destructional events can be identified and correlated within the GPR profile network, and the internal growth morphologies of the barrages are apparent. GPR profiles also clearly define the evolution of the facies geometries. Three phases of tufa development can be recognized within the GPR data and greatly extend our understanding of Holocene tufa‐forming processes in valley sites: (a) Early Holocene barrage build‐ups but with limited paludal deposition; (b) Middle Holocene ponding and sapropel accumulation under ‘warm’ conditions; and (c) Late Holocene barrage termination and valley levelling, probably coincidental with anthropogenic activity. This type of multidisciplinary approach should be considered as an essential prerequisite to all biostratigraphic and geochemical studies of Holocene freshwater carbonate sites.     

基于GIS与数值模拟软件耦合的三维边坡建模方法及其稳定性研究

基于地理信息系统(GIS)和数值模拟软件,提出了一套适用性强,运行流畅的三维边坡建模和模拟计算技术方案。此方案能充分利用复杂边坡的勘察历史资料,真正实现了从勘察数据处理-建立三维边坡模型-稳定性分析-结果反馈的边坡模拟全过程。为建立满足精度要求的模型,深入探讨了地表和土层的建模理论和方法,借助GRASS完成边坡的三维建模,并对已建模型进行详尽的误差分析,为量化建模质量提出了相应方法。用Python语言实现GIS和数值模拟软件的耦合,通过多个自主编写的程序和数据接口,完成不同平台间的数据传递和格式转换,避免了传输过程中数据的丢失或失真,还可深度挖掘已建模型的数据。借助杭口岭隧道工程实例,对此方案进行验证。分析结果表明,利用此方案建立的三维边坡模型,建模速度快,精度高,能准确地反映真实边坡的情况,并搜索到边坡潜在的最危险区域。     

Mathematical modelling of groundwater flow at Sellafield, UK

Sellafield in West Cumbria was a potential site for the location of the UK's first underground repository for radioactive, intermediate level waste (ILW). The repository was to lie around 650 m beneath the ground surface within rocks of the Borrowdale volcanic group (BVG), a thick suite of SW dipping, fractured, folded and metamorphosed Ordovician meta-andesites and ignimbrites. These are overlain by an onlapping sequence of Carboniferous and Permo-Triassic sediments. In situ borehole measurements showed that upward trending fluid pressure gradients exist in the area of the potential repository site, and that there are three distinct fluid types in the subsurface; fresh, saline and brine (at depth, to the west of the site). Simulations of fluid flow in the Sellafield region were undertaken with a 2D, steady-state, coupled fluid and heat flow simulation code (OILGEN). In both simplified and geologically complex models, topographically driven flow dominated the regional hydrogeology. Fluids trended persistently upwards through the potential repository site. The dense brine to the west of the site promoted upward deflection of topographically driven groundwaters. The inclusion in hydrogeological models of faults and variably saline sub-surface fluids was essential to the accurate reproduction of regional hydraulic head variations. Sensitivity analyses of geological variables showed that the rate of groundwater flow through the potential repository site was dependent upon the hydraulic conductivity of the BVG, and was unaffected by the hydraulic conductivity of other hydrostratigraphic units. Calibration of the model was achieved by matching simulated subsurface pressures to those measured in situ. Simulations performed with BVG hydraulic conductivity 100 times the base case median value provided the “best-fit” comparison between the calculated equivalent freshwater head and that measured in situ, regardless of the hydraulic conductivity of other hydrostratigraphic units. Transient mass transport simulations utilising the hydraulic conductivities of this “best fit” simulation showed that fluids passing through the potential repository site could reach the surface in 15 000 years. Simple safety case implications drawn from the results of the study showed that the measured BVG hydraulic conductivity must be less than 0.03 m year⁻¹ to be simply declared safe. Recent BVG hydraulic conductivity measurements showed that the maximum BVG hydraulic conductivity is around 1000 times this safety limit.     

Three-dimensional finite element modelling for consolidation due to groundwater withdrawal in a desaturating anisotropic aquifer system

A poroelastic numerical model is presented to evaluate three-dimensional consolidation due to groundwater withdrawal from desaturating anisotropic porous media. This numerical model is developed based on the fully coupled governing equations for groundwater flow in deforming variably saturated porous media and the Galerkin finite element method. Two different cases of unsaturated aquifers are simulated for the purpose of comparison: a cross-anisotropic soil aquifer, and a corresponding isotropic soil aquifer composed of a geometrically averaged equivalent material. The numerical simulation results show that the anisotropy has a significant effect on the shapes of three-dimensional hydraulic head distribution and displacement vector fields. Such an effect of anisotropy is caused by the uneven partitioning of the hydraulic pumping stress between the vertical and horizontal directions in both groundwater flow field and solid skeleton deformation field. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Comparative modelling approaches of hydro-mechanical processes in sealing experiments at the Tournemire URL

In this paper, a comparative modelling exercise from the DECOVALEX-2015 project is presented. The exercise is based on in situ experiments, performed at the Tournemire Underground Research Laboratory (URL), run by the IRSN (Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire), in France. These experiments aim at identifying conditions (e.g. technical specifications, design, construction, and defects) that will affect the long-term performance of swelling clay-based sealing systems, which is of key importance for the safety of underground nuclear waste disposal facilities. A number of materials are being considered as seals; the current work focusses on a 70/30 MX80 bentonite–sand mixture initially compacted at a dry density of 1.94 Mg/m³. The performance of the sealing plug involves at least three different important components, which are the hydro-mechanical behaviour of the bentonite–sand core, the overall permeability of the surrounding argillite, and the influence of the technological gap between the core and the argillite. Two particular tests have been selected for a comparative modelling exercise: the WT-1 test, which was designed to study the rock mass permeability, and the PT-A1 test, which aimed at quantifying the evolution of the hydro-mechanical field within the bentonite–sand core. A number of independent teams have worked towards modelling these experiments, using different codes and input parameters calibrated on additional small-scale laboratory experiments. Their results are compared and discussed.     

汶马高速通化隧道进口边坡变形特征及机理

在建的汶(川)马(尔康)高速公路通化1号隧道进口边坡倾倒变形特征明显,其稳定性控制汶马高速公路建设及运营安全。通过野外勘察查明倾倒变形体的空间发育特征,依据其倾倒强弱程度将倾倒体划分为倾倒坠覆区、强倾倒变形区和弱倾倒变形区,根据其变形特征进行了稳定性评价,并提出了针对性治理措施建议。     

Research at CSIRO on numerical modelling for mining geomechanics

The Division of Geomechanics CSIRO, has an extensive research programme involving the development and verification of computer programs for modelling in mining geomechanics. The scope of the Division's work is outlined, the various numerical techniques being developed are described and some applications of the programs are illustrated. Ongoing efforts to make the programs more accessible to mine design engineers, and plans for future research, are discussed.