On the drag coefficient over shallow water

It is shown that if the wind-wave spectrum in shallow water is approximately independent of wind speed due to the combined effects of white-capping and bottom friction, then the wave-induced drag coefficient has a maximum value when the wind speed is twice the maximum wave-speed; as the wind speed increases further, the drag coefficient slowly decreases. This result is consistent with the observations of Hicks et al. (1974).     

Some evaluations of drag and bulk transfer coefficients over water bodies of different sizes

Three recent experiments allow evaluation of the bulk transfer coefficients for momentum, water vapour and sensible heat over water bodies of different sizes. As part of a study of evaporation rates from a swamp, measurements of latent and sensible heat fluxes were made over Lake Wyangan in southern N.S.W., Australia. This lake is of several kilometers diameter. In a later experiment, Reynolds stress and sensible heat transfer were measured from a natural-gas platform standing in Bass Strait, south of mainland Australia. The most recent experiment involved the direct measurement of each of these turbulent fluxes from a fixed tower erected in Lake Michigan, U.S.A.Perhaps the most important of the results is the finding that drag coefficients measured over Bass Strait are not significantly different from those over Lake Michigan, despite the obvious differences in depth, fetch, and hence surface wave structure. At both locations, drag coefficients are found to increase slightly with increasing wind speed, while at low wind speeds they are not significantly different from those corresponding to aerodynamic smoothness.Near-neutral bulk transfer coefficients for sensible heat and for water vapour are found to be similar. An average value of about 1.4 × 10^–3 is obtained.It is emphasized that stability effects should be considered in any discussion of drag coefficients or bulk transfer coefficients. Large errors can result if near-neutrality is incorrectly assumed.     

The diurnal temperature wave for quadratic and exponential variation of the austausch coefficient

Summary Solutions of the heat conduction equation applied to the diurnal temperature wave are derived for two new cases: austausch increasing (a) quadratically and (b) exponentially with height. These solutions are compared with each other and with solutions for other cases where austausch is also unbounded with height. This procedure clarifies the applicability of all such solutions, and they are found to have serious limitations. The results indicate that the austausch coefficient at higher levels in theoretical models should be bounded as it is in nature.

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Zusammenfassung Die Wärmeleitungsgleichung der täglichen Temperaturwelle in der Luft wird für zwei neue Bedingungen gelöst, nämlich 1. für eine quadratische und 2. für eine exponentielle Zunahme des Austausches mit der Höhe. Die Lösungen werden miteinander und mit Lösungen für andere Fälle verglichen, wo der Austausch ebenfalls nicht mit der Höhe begrenzt ist. Unsere Methode wirft ein Licht auf die Anwendbarkeit aller derartigen Lösungen und zeigt, daß diese nur beschränkte Anwendbarkeit haben. Es geht daraus hervor, daß für theoretische Modelle der Austauschkoeffizient mit der Höhe begrenzt bleiben sollte, was den Verhältnissen in der Natur entspricht.

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Résumé L'équation de conductibilité thermique de la variation diurne de la température de l'air est résolue par l'auteur pour deux cas nouveaux; dans le premier l'échange turbulent augmente au carré, dans le second exponentiellement avec l'altitude. L'auteur compare ensuite ces solutions entre elles et avec celles provenant d'autres cas, où l'échange n'est pas non plus limité par l'altitude. Cette méthode donne de précieux renseignements sur les possibilités d'applications de ce genre de solutions, qui se montrent passablement limitées. Il en ressort également que pour des modèles théoriques le coefficient d'échange reste limité en altitude, ce qui correspond d'ailleurs aux conditions naturelles.

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With 2 Figures

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Contribution No. 16, Department of Meteorology and Climatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.     

中国大陆降水日变化研究进展

文章概述了中国大陆降水日变化的最新研究成果,给出了中国大陆降水日变化的整体图像,指出目前数值模式模拟降水日变化的局限性,为及时了解和掌握降水日变化研究进展、开展相关科学研究和进行降水预报服务提供了有价值的科学依据和参考。现有研究表明：（1）中国大陆夏季降水日变化的区域特征明显。在夏季,东南和东北地区的降水日峰值主要集中在下午;西南地区多在午夜达到降水峰值;长江中上游地区的降水多出现在清晨;中东部地区清晨、午后双峰并存;青藏高原大部分地区是下午和午夜峰值并存。（2）降水日变化存在季节差异和季节内演变。冷季降水日峰值时刻的区域差异较暖季明显减小,在冷季南方大部分地区都表现为清晨峰值;中东部地区暖季降水日变化随季风雨带的南北进退表现出清晰的季节内演变,季风活跃（间断）期的日降水峰值多发生在清晨（下午）。（3）持续性降水和局地短时降水的云结构特性以及降水日峰值出现时间存在显著差异。持续性降水以层状云特性为主,地表降水和降水廓线的峰值大多位于午夜后至清晨;短时降水以对流降水为主,峰值时间则多出现在下午至午夜前。（4）降水日变化涉及不同尺度的山-谷风、海-陆风和大气环流的综合影响,涉及复杂的云雨形成和演变过程,对流层低层环流日变化对降水日变化的区域差异亦有重要影响。（5）目前数值模式对中国降水日变化的模拟能力有限,且模拟结果具有很强的模式依赖性,仅仅提高模式水平分辨率并不能总是达到改善模拟结果的目的,关键是要减少存在于降水相关的物理过程参数化方案中的不确定性问题。     

Stability dependence of the drag and bulk transfer coefficients over a coastal sea surface

Bulk transfer coefficients were evaluated from eddy correlation flux measurements on a fixed pier during onshore winds. The mean values are C _D = 1.69 × 10^-3, C _H = 2.58 × 10^-3 and C _E = 1.51 × 10^-3. The drag coefficient, C _D, gradually increases with wind speed but C _H and C _E are independent of wind speed. According to theory and empirical formulas based on experimental results over flat grassland, the transfer coefficients should gradually increase with increasing instability. This is confirmed experimentally in the stable region in our case. However, the drag coefficient appears to decrease with increasing instability, which is against the theoretical result. A stability dependence is not clearly observed for C _H or C _E.     

On drag coefficient parameterization with post processed direct fluxes measurements over the ocean

This study presents an evaluation of the atmospheric factors influencing the post-processing for fast-response data of horizontal momentum, vertical wind component, temperature, and water vapor to measure turbulent fluxes. They are observed at the Ieodo ocean research station over the Yellow Sea during the period of October 2004 to February 2008. The post process methods employed here are composed of quality control and tilt correction for turbulent flux measurement. The present result of quality control on the fast-response data shows that total removal ratio of the data generally depends on the factors such as a wind speed, relative humidity, significant wave height, visibility, and stability parameter (z/L). Especially, the removal ratio of water vapor data is significantly increased on light wind and strong stability conditions. The results show that the total removal ratio of water vapor data increases when wind speed is less than 3 m s^?1 and wave height is less than 1 m. The total removal ratio of water vapor data also increases with the value of the stability parameter. Three different algorithms of tilt correction methods (double rotation, triple rotation, and planar fit) are applied to correct the tilt of the sonic anemometer used in the observation. Friction velocities in near neutral state are greater than friction velocity in other states. Drag coefficients are categorized in terms of stabilities and seasons.     

The variation of the GPS dropwindsonde drag coefficient and its impact on the wind retrieval from dropwindsonde measurements

The wind finding equations currently used to retrieve horizontal winds from Global Positioning System dropwindsonde wind measurements are derived based on a point object model in which the drag coefficient of the dropwindsonde is assumed to be a constant. The wind tunnel tests performed as part of this study showed, however, that the dropwindsonde aerodynamic coefficients vary appreciably with angles of attack. To investigate the impact of this finding, the dropwindsonde motion in a pseudo-stochastic wind field has been simulated using a motion model more sophisticated than the point object model. The results showed that, although the constant drag coefficient assumption is not supported by the wind tunnel test results, the wind finding equations still correctly calculate both the mean and the turbulence intensity profiles. In addition, a revised method to calculate the vertical wind was proposed based on the derivation of the improved motion model, which enhanced the accuracy of vertical wind estimates by including the real-time dropwindsonde drag coefficient and the dropwindsonde vertical acceleration into calculation.     

西太平洋热带海域湍流通量以及海面粗糙度和曳力系数的观测研究

本文利用1987年西太平洋热带海域考察期间系留气艇所取得的廓线资料,用相似理论半经验的通量-廓线关系,给出这一海域的湍流热通量和动量通量,并且对海面粗糙度长度Z_0,曳力系数C_D及其与风速的关系等作了初步的研究,给出了一些经验公式,并与其他研究者的研究结果作了比较。     

A synoptic parameterization of the drag coefficient

Abstract

The problem areas affecting the evaluation of hail suppression experiments are reviewed. These include the hail sensors and networks, trop damage data, statistical analysis, the hail‐suppression hypothesis, and the technology of cloud seeding. General directions of needed research are proposed.     

Aerodynamic drag coefficient and roughness length for three seasons over a tropical western Indian station

Land Surface Processes Experiment (LASPEX) was conducted over semi-arid region of western India in 1997. As a part of this program, wind and temperature observations were taken using slow as well as fast response sensors over a semi-arid station Anand (22°35′N, 72°55′E) situated in Gujarat state of India. Turbulent parameters such as drag coefficient and sensible heat flux were estimated using eddy correlation method and aerodynamic roughness length was estimated using wind profiles. The analysis has been carried out for the data representing summer, monsoon and winter seasons. It was found that the wind speed does not exceed 5 ms^− 1 during the observational period considered in this study. Relationship of aerodynamic drag coefficient and roughness length with wind speed and stability has been investigated. Aerodynamic roughness length was greater in the stable conditions when the wind speed was low and it reduced drastically during convective conditions. The resulting values of aerodynamic roughness length and drag coefficient for the monsoon period agree well with values reported in literature over Indian subcontinent for homogeneous grass covered surfaces.     

Structure and diurnal variation of the atmospheric boundary layer over a mid-latitude glacier in summer

During the summer of 1994, a meteorological experiment(PASTEX) was performed over the Pasterze Glacier,Austria. In this paper we describe the averagehorizontal and vertical structure of the atmosphericboundary layer (ABL) above the melting glacier, aswell as its diurnal variation during a period of fairweather. It was found that very persistent glacierwinds with a vertical extent of 100 m dominate thesummertime structure of the ABL, because the gravityforce acting on the near surface air parcels is manytimes larger than the synoptic-scale pressuregradient. During fair weather, we find a welldeveloped mountain-valley wind circulation above thekatabatic layer. During daytime, the valley wind advectswarm and humid air from the ice-free valley towardsthe glacier, limiting the development of the glacierwind. During the night, the downslope flows thatdevelop above the ice-free valley walls (mountainwind) merge with the glacier wind and enhance thedownslope transport of air. The associated subsidenceis the most probable cause for the drying of the lowerpart of the atmosphere during the night. Duringperiods of weak synoptic winds, the glacier windeffectively generates turbulence in the stronglystratified surface layer. On average, the turbulentfluxes of sensible and latent heat provide 25% of thetotal melting energy at the surface of the glaciertongue, and the influence of the glacier winds on thesurface energy budget can therefore not beneglected.     

Aircraft estimates of the geostrophic drag coefficient and the rossby similarity functions A and B over the sea

Estimates of the geostrophic drag coefficient and the Rossby similarity functions, A and B obtained from data collected by an instrumented aircraft over the sea are presented. The average value of the geostrophic drag coefficient is 0.027 and is independent of the geostrophic windspeed. The dependence of the similarity functions A and B on boundary-layer parameters is investigated. The function A is found to depend on baroclinicity parameters, while B depends on the parameter u _*/fh (where u _* is the surface friction velocity, f is the Coriolis parameter, and h is the boundary-layer depth). Using the geostrophic drag coefficient found here and the results of surface drag coefficient studies, a relationship between geostrophic windspeed and surface windspeed is obtained which shows good agreement with empirical data.     

中国地区不同强度降水的变化趋势

利用2009—2013年天津地区205个自动气象站的逐时降水资料, 分析了天津地区降水的基本空间分布和日变化特征。结果表明: (1)天津地区降水小时数及小时平均降水强度空间差异明显, 高值区分别位于蓟县北部山区、市区西北侧、滨海新区中南部; (2)天津中北部地区累积降水量峰值主要出现在23—03时, 南部地区则出现在17—19时和04—08时, 降水频次峰值基本都出现在00—09时, 降水强度峰值与累积降水量峰值出现时间类似, 11时为降水强度低谷出现时间; (3)全市傍晚至午夜的降水频次明显较凌晨偏少, 长持续时间(10 h以上)的最大降水易出现在凌晨至清晨, 短时降水(1~4 h)的最大降水易出现在傍晚至午夜; 13—24时多数时次, 无论降水量、频次还是降水强度市区均较其周边地区和沿海地区偏多偏强, 而凌晨多数时次, 市区则以偏少偏弱为主; (4)始于下午至傍晚的降水多为短时降水, 而始于傍晚至凌晨的降水持续时间普遍较长。

     

The diurnal variation of wind direction at Calgary

The winds at Calgary airport show a diurnal variation. Night winds tend to be northwest, with afternoon winds from the Southeast. Other data show that this variation is not associated with local topography, but seems to be an effect of the Rocky Mountains to the west.     

Wave-dependence of friction velocity,roughness length,and drag coefficient over coastal and open water surfaces by using three databases

The parameterization of friction velocity, roughness length, and the drag coefficient over coastal zones and open water surfaces enables us to better understand the physical processes of air-water interaction. In context of measurements from the Humidity Exchange over the Sea Main Experiment (HEXMAX), we recently proposed wave-parameter dependent approaches to sea surface friction velocity and the aerodynamic roughness by using the dimensional analysis method. To extend the application of these approaches to a range of natural surface conditions, the present study is to assess this approach by using both coastal shallow (RASEX) and open water surface measurements (Lake Ontario and Grand Banks ERS-1 SAR) where wind speeds were greater than 6.44 m s^-1. Friction velocities, the surface aerodynamic roughness, and the neutral drag coefficient estimated by these approaches under moderate wind conditions were compared with the measurements mentioned above. Results showed that the coefficients in these approaches for coastal shallow water surface differ from those for open water surfaces, and that the aerodynamic roughness length in terms of wave age or significant wave height should be treated differently for coastal shallow and open water surfaces.     

喀什市降水日变化特征分析

利用1994～2013年5～9月喀什市气象站逐小时降水资料,分析喀什近20a降水日变化特征。研究表明,20时至翌日06时为降水量的高值阶段,最大值出现在01时,07时至19时为降水量的低值时段,最小值出现在16时。降水频次的高值区为00时至07时,降水最不易产生的时间为17时。降水强度最高值在20时,次高值为01时,也是累积降水量较大时刻,降水强度最低值出现在15时也是累积降水量的低值区。喀什的降水主要以短时性降水（1～3h）为主,多发生在傍晚至夜间,1h降水频次最多的是量级≤1mm的降水,但1.1mm≤R1≤3.0mm量级的降水贡献率最高。小雨、中雨及大雨降水过程最易发生时段均为前半夜,下午为各量级降水过程发生最少的时段。     

包头市不同路面温度变化特征及预报模型研究

利用包头试验场2016年12月—2018年12月沥青、水泥、地砖、砂石路面温度、气温观测和同期气象站实况资料,统计分析了不同季节、不同天气状况下各种路面温度和气温的日变化特征,以及不同路面温度与气象因子的关系,采用逐步回归统计方法建立了不同季节不同路面温度预报模型并进行检验。结果表明,不同路面温度的日变化与季节和天空状况有密切关系,路面温度与平均气温、最高气温、最低气温呈显著正相关;与相对湿度呈负相关。基于不同路面温度预报方程的检验结果得出,预报准确率在82%～94%,相关系数在0.86～0.96,模型应用于路面温度预报业务。     

区域数值预报系统在北京地区的降水日变化预报偏差特征及成因分析

为了研究北京快速更新循环同化预报系统(BJ-RUCv2.0)在北京地区降水日变化的预报偏差特征及其成因,利用2012—2015年夏季BJ-RUCv2.0系统第2重区域(3 km分辨率)预报结果和北京地区122个自动气象站逐时观测数据以及观象台探空观测资料,分析模式对北京地区降水日变化预报偏差的区域性特征和传播特征,研究模式局地环流预报偏差特征及其对降水预报偏差的可能反馈机制。研究结果表明,BJ-RUCv2.0系统多个更新循环的预报在北京平原地区均存在夜间降水漏报问题,降水预报偏差表现为模式预报降水在西部山区降水偏多,预报降水雨带难以在平原地区增强发展,造成了模式降水在傍晚山区偏多而夜间平原地区降水明显偏少。通过分析模式局地环流预报偏差及其响应机制发现,由于白天平原地区近地层偏暖偏干,山区底层偏冷中层偏湿,造成了山区-平原地区间的温度梯度强度偏强且强温差出现时间提前,西部山区午后降水偏多;由于平原地区地面气温预报持续偏高,入夜后偏北风难以到达平原地区,造成了山区-平原间的地形辐合线位置偏北,影响山区降水雨带向平原地区移动,同时平原地区近地层内水汽持续偏低,抑制降水雨带在东移过程中的发展,造成模式在平原地区夜间降水预报容易出现漏报。模式冷启动所用的GFS资料土壤湿度在北京平原地区明显小于实际观测,是模式预报偏暖偏干的可能原因之一。     

太阳辐射日变化对气候模拟的影响

本文用两层大气环流模式,作气候模拟对于太阳辐射日变化的敏感性试验.取实测的七月纬圈平均气候资料作为初始场,积分四十天,对后三十天的结果进行平均,作为模拟的月平均状态.另一个试验则是在模式中去掉太阳辐射的日变化,其它都和第一个试验相同。比较这两个试验的计算结果,发现:若忽略太阳辐射的日变化,(i)使纬圈平均降水和蒸发都减少,尤其在中纬陆地上更为显著;(ii)部分地区土壤湿度减少;(iii)云量增加;(iv)大气顶净辐射收入明显减少;(v)地表净加热明显减少;并使土壤湿度变化不大的地区地表温度明显降低. 我们还取了一月纬圈平均气候资料作为初始场,作了同样的数值试验。得到了类似的结果. 本文的结果表明,要作出正确的气候预测,以及作中、短期降水预报,考虑太阳辐射的日变化都是必要的.     

江苏南部汛期降水日变化特征分析

利用江苏南部20个气象观测站2008—2012年汛期(5—10月)逐小时降水资料,应用降水频率来分析了江苏南部地区降水日变化基本特征和区域差异。研究表明:降水日变化特征地域性差异较强,西部站、东部站和东北沿海站都存在一定的特征差异。东部站降水量的最大值主要出现在下午和傍晚;西部站降水量主峰值出现在下午,并且在清晨和夜间还有两个次峰值;东北沿海站呈现出午前、午后的双峰值形式。2008—2011年降水量下午高值区有先减弱后增强并提前的趋势,而上午的高值区有总体减弱并推迟的特征。2011年后有明显减弱的趋势。江苏南部总体来说,短时强降水(大于20和25 mm/h)在16—19时出现主峰值,07—09时也有相对较小的次峰值。