A statistical analysis for pattern recognition of small cloud particles sampled with a PMS-2DC probe

Although small particles (size between 25 m and 200 m) are frequently observed within ice and water clouds, they are not generally used properly for the calculation of structural, optical and microphysical quantities. Actually neither the exact shape nor the phase (ice or water) of these particles is well denned since the existing pattern recognition algorithms are only efficient for larger particle sizes. The present study describes a statistical analysis concerning small hexagonal columns and spherical particles sampled with a PMS-2DC probe, and the corresponding images are classified according to the occurrence probability of various pixels arrangements. This approach was first applied to synthetic data generated with a numerical model, including the effects of diffraction at a short distance, and then validated against actual data sets obtained from in-cloud flights during the pre-ICE89 campaign. Our method allows us to differentiate small hexagonal columns from spherical particles, thus making possible the characterization of the three dimensional shape (and consequently evaluation of the volume) of the particles, and finally to compute e.g., the liquid or the ice water content.     

The influence of cloud structure and droplet concentration on the reflectance of shortwave radiation

The effects of cloud shadowing, channelling, cloud side illumination and droplet concentration are investigated with regard to the reflection of shortwave solar radiation. Using simple geometric clouds, coupled with a Monte Carlo model the transmission properties of idealized cloud layers are found. The clouds are illuminated with direct solar radiation from above. The main conclusion reached is that the distribution of the cloud has a very large influence on the reflectivity of a cloud layer. In particular, if the cloud contains vertical gaps through the cloud layer in which the liquid water content is zero, then, smaller more numerous gaps are more influential on the radiation than fewer, larger gaps with equal cloud fraction. At very low solar zenith angles channelling of the radiation reduces the reflection expected on the basis of the percentage cloud cover. At high solar zenith angles the illumination of the cloud edges significantly increases the reflection despite the shadowing of one cloud by another when the width of the gaps is small. The impact of droplet concentration upon the reflection of cloud layers is also investigated. It is found that at low solar zenith angles where channelling is important, the lower concentrations increase the transmission. Conversely, when cloud edge illumination is dominant the cloud distribution is found to be more important for the higher concentrations.     

The nuclei of natural cloud formation part II: The supersaturation in natural clouds and the variation of cloud droplet concentration

Summary Calculations are performed to determine the time variation of supersaturation during cloud formation. It is shown that a simple expression can be used to obtain the maximum supersaturation (and hence the number of nuclei activated) as a function of updraught velocity and nucleus spectra insert omitted portion of copy reported in Part 1 and it isshown that they lead to cloud droplet concentrations which agree with those actually observed.     

It goes both ways: measurements of simultaneous evapotranspiration and fog droplet deposition at a montane cloud forest

Fluxes of latent heat, sensible heat, and water vapor, including turbulent deposition of fog droplets, were measured for two months in autumn 2005 within a subtropical montane cypress forest in Taiwan. The goal of the study was to determine whether significant evapotranspiration can occur during foggy conditions. Water vapor fluxes, Q_W, as determined with the Bowen Ratio method, were compared to those simultaneously measured with the eddy covariance method. The median Bowen Ratio was 1.06, and the median Q_W flux was 5 · 2 × 10^?5 kg m^?2 s^?1. The vertical gradients of temperature and specific humidity over the forest, ΔT and Δq, peaked around noon during days without fog, and were reduced during foggy conditions. For 66% of the data points, ΔT and Δq were negative, corresponding to positive (upward) fluxes of sensible heat Q_H and latent heat Q_E. A Monte Carlo simulation proved that statistically significant evapotranspiration rates, i.e., upward water vapor fluxes, occurred during fog. At the same time, deposition fluxes of fog droplets occurred. Our results show that even during fog events, significant evapotranspiration may occur. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Electromagnetic waves and electrostatic oscillations in an inhomogeneous plasma structure at the geomagnetic equator

The measurements of the broadband wave radiation in the region of the geomagnetic equator in the topside ionosphere are presented (the APEX satellite experiment). It has been indicated that the electromagnetic radiation, observed in a plasma density pit, could be related to the formation of a large-scale plasma cavern in the vicinity of the geomagnetic equatorial surface. A large-scale plasma density pit could be formed in the region of heating during damping of plasma vortical structures and electrostatic oscillations, propagating across geomagnetic field lines and crossing the geomagnetic equatorial surface. Brightness of the electromagnetic radiation, observed at frequencies higher than the plasma eigenfrequencies and local plasma and/or upper hybrid frequencies, decreases with increasing eigenfrequencies.     

b值空间扫描图象场源关系初探

讨论了云南地区６．７级以上强震第Ⅲ,Ⅳ活跃期和平静期间地震前一年的ｂ值空间扫描图象,发现在强震频繁发生的云南地区,当某一个异常区发生强震时,与此同时出现的其他异常区的若干年后仍可能发生强震,这些相对于已发生的强震为中短期场兆的异常可能为未来强震的中长期源兆。对低ｂ值异常而言,ｂ值较低的异常区发生强震较早,对高ｂ值异常则动态变化的异常区发生强震较早,异常幅度和异常区大小相对稳定的异常区发生强震较晚。     

The retrieval of cloud microphysical properties using satellite measurements and an in situ database

By combining AVHRR data from the NOAA satellites with information from a database of in situ measurements, large-scale maps can be generated of the microphysical parameters most immediately significant for the modelling of global circulation and climate. From the satellite data, the clouds can be classified into cumuliform, stratiform and cirrus classes and then into further sub-classes by cloud top temperature. At the same time a database of in situ measurements made by research aircraft is classified into the same sub-classes and a statistical analysis is used to derive relationships between the sub-classes and the cloud microphysical properties. These two analyses are then linked to give estimates of the microphysical properties of the satellite observed clouds. Examples are given of the application of this technique to derive maps of the probability of occurrence of precipitating clouds and of precipitating water content derived from a case study within the International Cirrus Experiment (ICE) held in 1989 over the North Sea.     

On the application of the classic Kessler and Berry schemes in Large Eddy Simulation models with a particular emphasis on cloud autoconversion, the onset time of precipitation and droplet evaporation

Many Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models use the classic Kessler parameterisation either as it is or in a modified form to model the process of cloud water autoconversion into precipitation. The Kessler scheme, being linear, is particularly useful and is computationally straightforward to implement. However, a major limitation with this scheme lies in its inability to predict different autoconversion rates for maritime and continental clouds. In contrast, the Berry formulation overcomes this difficulty, although it is cubic. Due to their different forms, it is difficult to match the two solutions to each other. In this paper we single out the processes of cloud conversion and accretion operating in a deep model cloud and neglect the advection terms for simplicity. This facilitates exact analytical integration and we are able to derive new expressions for the time of onset of precipitation using both the Kessler and Berry formulations. We then discuss the conditions when the two schemes are equivalent. Finally, we also critically examine the process of droplet evaporation within the framework of the classic Kessler scheme. We improve the existing parameterisation with an accurate estimation of the diffusional mass transport of water vapour. We then demonstrate the overall robustness of our calculations by comparing our results with the experimental observations of Beard and Pruppacher, and find excellent agreement.     

Radiation pattern ofP and Rayleigh waves for an experimental strike-slip fault model

Summary The spatial radiation pattern of P and Rayleigh waves for microtremors, produced in a seismoactive source by a suitable modelling technique, was investigated. The results indicate that the source simulates a strike-slip fault of finite dimensions slipping along the fault plane.     

克州电离层测高仪建设及初步结果

电离层测高仪是地面探测电离层的主要常规手段.2010年8月中国气象局在新疆的克孜勒苏柯尔克孜自治州(简称克州)(北纬39.72°,东经76.18°)完成了中国最西端电离层垂直探测站的建设.本文介绍了克州电离层测高仪的主要性能参数、一种新的CADI测高仪天线方案设计及天线系统测试结果;初步比较了克州电离层测高仪站和同样安装了CADI测高仪的加拿大Baker站(北纬52.16°,西经106.53°)2010年10月1日的电离图,这两个站的电离图质量基本一致;2011年2月24日发生了一次太阳耀斑事件,克州电离层测高仪记录了这次耀斑期间电离层的变化和响应,证明了测高仪监测对于短波通信有重要应用价值;比较了2010年8月至10月克州电离层测高仪观测月中值、Rome电离层测高仪(北纬41.9°,东经12.5°)观测月中值和IRI2007的模式值并发现:1)2010年8～10月,克州foF2观测月中值和同纬度Rome的foF2观测月中值在分布形态上比较一致;2)克州foF2观测月中值和模式月中值在8月比较吻合,在10月存在一定差异;9月10:00～13:00、10月4:00～14:00IRI2007模式月中值高于观测月中值,且偏离较大(大于8%);3)克州foF2观测月中值在8月、9月的分布中存在Biteout现象.     

The electrostatic force between a charged conducting sphere and a charged dielectric sphere in an arbitrarily oriented external electric field

Summary The electrostatic force between a charged conducting sphere and a charged dielectric sphere in a uniform, arbitrarily oriented external electric field is obtained and presented in terms of force coefficients which depend only on the relative geometry of the two spheres and the dielectric constants of the dielectric sphere and the medium. When the dielectric constant of the dielectric sphere is allowed to approach infinity, the resulting computed force agrees with that ofDavis (1964) for two conducting spheres, and when the external field and the charge on the dielectric sphere are set to zero, the resulting force agrees with that ofHall andBeard (1975) for a charged conducting sphere near an uncharged dielectric sphere.     

Negative chlorine ion chemistry in the upper stratosphere and its application to an artificially created dense electron cloud

This paper discusses new potential reactions of chlorine-bearing anions (negative ions) in the upper stratosphere. These reactions are then applied to the negative-ion chemistry following the injection of an electron cloud of very high density, of the order of 10^6-10⁷ e^- cm⁻³, in the 40-45-km region. The idea is to evaluate the recently proposed scheme to mitigate ozone depletion by converting the reactive chlorine atoms at these altitudes into Cl^- ions which are unreactive towards ozone, i.e., electron scavenging of Cl. We find that the previously neglected photodetachment from Cl^- is fast. For an overhead sun, this process may have a rate coefficient of 0.08 s⁻¹ when multiple scattering is included. The rate could be even higher, depending on the ground albedo. Switching reaction between Cl^-·H₂O and HCl might lead to the formation of Cl^-·HCl anion. Possible reactions of Cl^-·H₂O and Cl^-·HCl with O atoms could produce ClO^- and Cl^-₂. The production of ClO^- in this manner is significant because Cl^- having a high photodetachment rate constant would be regenerated in the very likely reactions of ClO^- with O. When these possibilities are considered, then it is found that the chlorine anions may not be the major ions inside the electron cloud due to the rapid photodetachment from Cl^-. Furthermore, in such a cloud, there may be the hazard that the Cl^--Cl^-·H₂O-ClO^--Cl^- cycle amounts to catalytic destruction of two O atoms. Thus, the scheme could be risky if practised in the altitude region where atomic oxygen is an important constituent. Similar conclusions apply even if the ClO^- species forms ClO^-₃ by three-body association with O₂, instead of reacting with O. It must be emphasized that the present study is speculative at this time, because none of the relevant reactions have been investigated in the laboratory as yet. Nevertheless, it is very safe to say that the scheme of ozone preservation by electron scavenging of the upper stratospheric Cl is much less certain than implied in the studies reported by its original proponents, because those studies neglected the photodetachment from Cl^- and made the highly unlikely assumption that the Cl^-·H₂O anion neither photodissociates nor reacts any further. The situation at the lower altitudes could be even more complex due to the formation of large cluster ions and the ion-induced aerosol formation. The lower atmospheric situation, therefore, requires much more study. The uncertainties in the scavenging scheme due to the electrostatic repulsion in the cloud should also be addressed. Despite the uncertainties about its environmental engineering usefulness, the emerging technology for artificial creation of plasmas, with any desired density and charge in the stratosphere, could have significant pure scientific values in the studies of stratospheric ion chemistry and ion-induced aerosol formation. Such studies have perennially suffered from the extremely low densities of the naturally occurring plasma.     

A comparative study on the growth of cloud drops by condensation using an air parcel model with and without entrainment

During a study of the growth of cloud drops by condensation the evolution of cloud drop size spectra with height above cloud base was determined for maritime aerosols, and for continental aerosols containing aerosol particles of mixed composition. Air parcel models were used in which the parcel was either completely closed to mass and heat transfer (strictly adiabatic models), or open to heat transfer and to partial or complete mass transfer (entrainment models). It was found that adiabatic models and models which consider the entraining of air devoid of aerosol particles predict drop size distributions which are considerably narrower than those observed in non-precipitating cumulus clouds, and have only a single maximum. On the other hand, relative broad drop size distributions and distributions with a double maximum — as they are observed in atmospheric clouds — are predicted if the entrainment of both air and aerosol particles are considered in the condensation model. Our results support the findings ofWarner (1973) which were obtained for a purely maritime aerosol.     

Laboratory and field assessment of an infrared turbidity probe and its response to particle size and variation in suspended sediment concentration

Abstract

Using a combination of laboratory and field experiments, the performance of a Partech Instruments Ltd IR40-C active head suspended solids sensor has been tested with respect to changing particle size distribution and rapid variation in suspended sediment transport rate. The sensor, which utilizes light attenuation in the infrared waveband, has several advantages both over visible light optical designs and over nuclear or optical back-scatter (OBS) devices. Three sets of laboratory tests are reported: calibration experiments using estuarine, pro-glacial and control media; flume simulations of pulsed sediment supply at a variety of frequencies, concentrations and ambient flow velocities; and simple tests for the effect of air bubbles within the sensor light path. The sensor was also deployed in the field, together with an electromagnetic current meter, to monitor flow and suspended sediment transport fluctuations in the turbulent frequency range. Although the sensor performed well with respect to drift, noise and stability of calibration, significant variation occurred with respect to suspensions of differing particle sizes. A simple correction procedure involving the weighting of sensor output by specific particle surface area may enable comparison of turbidity data from different locations and times, and with standard calibration solutions. At high frequencies, the sensor is capable of resolving fluctuations in the transport rate to c. 0.5 s, which appears to correspond well to field observations of significant velocity fluctuation and transport ‘events’ and is comparable with results obtained using OBS devices. However, the resolution of transport fluctuations is again dependent upon particle characteristics, and the presence of air bubbles in the flow whose size approximates the path width of the sensor may mimic a fluctuating transport process. Further interpretation of high frequency measurement awaits research into the fundamentals of rapidly varying flow and sediment transport characteristics.     

Local cloud cover,ground-based and satellite measurements of erythemal dose rate for an urban,tropical site in Southern Hemisphere

Clouds are the main tropospheric agent in the modulation of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the Earth's surface. Clouds produce both attenuation and enhancement of radiation. This work shows how the local cloud cover (LCC) can partially explain mismatches between overpass satellite and ground-based instruments in the erythemal dose rate (EDR) for an urban, tropical site in Southern Hemisphere. Best agreement occurs for the scarcer cloud cover of winter. The Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) EDR is on average 15% higher than ground-based measurements for cloudless skies. This value is due to both OMI algorithm misconception about aerosols and instrumental uncertainty.     

上海市学生人群防震减灾科普工作现状调查研究——以初中生群体为例

为了全面系统评价上海市学生人群的防震减灾科普效果,准确了解其科普需求,课题组在2014年下半年选取上海市某初级中学的部分学生作为示例,从科普知识的认知程度、需求与认知偏好、对宣传工作满意度评价、科普教育在学校开展的情况这四个方面进行问卷调查,以便及时总结经验,为今后在该人群中更加科学、高效地开展防震减灾科普宣传工作打下坚实的基础。