Laser scanning and digital outcrop geology in the petroleum industry: A review

The use of lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) systems for modelling petroleum reservoir analogues has become increasingly popular over the past few years, and there has been a proliferation of articles on the subject both on techniques and applications. A review of the literature of recent years has been conducted focussing on the use of lidar data not only in petroleum geology related projects, but also looking to the wider field of lidar usage to examine what other approaches may be of use to the petroleum geologist. Benefits of digital data acquisition are considered, as well as a basic overview of data collection approaches. Use of a variety of attributes (intensity, colour, dip, azimuth, co-linearity, co-planarity among others) is discussed as an aid to both manual and automated interpretation approaches. Integration of lidar data with other data types from traditional field data (sedimentary logs for example) and other digital data types such as multispectral and hyperspectral imagery, and ground penetrating radar are discussed as a way of increasing the amount of information in the digital dataset. The application of artificial intelligence approaches such as Smart Swarms and Neural Networks are considered, as well as current developments in both hardware and software. A variety of examples are given where lidar has been used in an innovative or interesting way, showing the strength of this data acquisition approach when combined with appropriate interpretation and modelling techniques.     

Determination of stratospheric aerosol parameters from two-wavelength lidar sensing data

We calculate the microphysical characteristics of stratospheric aerosol from lidar-sensing data at wavelengths of 355 and 532 nm using a priori information about the aerosol spectra obtained from balloon and aircraft measurement data. We analyze the mode structure of the spectra and its coupling with the integral microphysical characteristics of aerosol. For most implementations, it was shown that two aerosol modes (of background and volcanic natures) make commensurate contributions to integral aerosol characteristics, which makes it difficult to use the traditional method of model estimates. It is more efficient to use an optical model of a statistical character that is based on approximation dependences between the required integral aerosol characteristics and lidar-measured optical characteristics. We found that the area, volume, and effective size of particles and the lidar ratio at a wavelength of 355 nm correlated with the absolute values of backscattering coefficients at wavelengths of 355 or 532 nm and the lidar ratio at the wavelength of 532 nm correlated with the ratio of backscattering coefficients at these wavelengths. We estimate the error in the determination of integral characteristics of aerosol using the model developed. The model efficiency is demonstrated on real data of stratospheric aerosol lidar sensing.     

Retrieval of integral parameters of tropospheric aerosol from two-wavelength lidar sounding

A scheme of interpreting the data of two-wavelength lidar sounding is proposed. The scheme is based on functional relationships between the lidar ratios and between some integral characteristics of aerosol and the ratio of the backscattering coefficients at the sounding wavelengths. The AERONET data, results of contact aerosol measurements and multiwavelength lidar sounding, and the OPAC aerosol model are used to find these functional relationships, which are statistical in character. Analysis of data is made separately for continental, dust, oceanic, and smoke aerosols. Backscattering for mineral aerosol fractions are calculated for a model of randomly oriented spheroids. A numerical experiment shows that the errors in determining a number of integral parameters of aerosol (extinction coefficient, characteristic radius of particles, volume concentrations) that are due to the statistical straggling of lidar ratios and other specified integral characteristics are no greater than 32% if the optical thickness of the sounding layer is no greater than 1.     

Combining Lidar Elevation Data and IKONOS Multispectral Imagery for Coastal Classification Mapping

This article studies the effect of airborne lidar (surface) elevation data on the classification of multispectral IKONOS images over a coastal area. The lidar data and IKONOS images are treated as independent multiple bands to conduct the classification. To do so, the lidar elevation data is first resampled to the same ground spacing interval and stretched to the same radiometric range as the IKONOS images. An unsupervised classification based on the ISODATA algorithm is then used to determine a class schema of six classes: road, water, marsh, roof, tree, and sand. Training sites and checking sites are selected over the lidar-IKONOS merged data set for the subsequent supervised classification and quality evaluation. The complete confusion matrices and average quality indices are presented to assess and compare the classification results. It is shown that the inclusion of the lidar elevation data benefits the separation of classes that have similar spectral characteristics, such as roof and road, water and marsh. The overall classification errors, especially the false positive errors, are reduced by up to 50%. Moreover, by using the lidar elevation data, the classification results show more realistic and homogeneous distribution of geographic features. This property will benefit the subsequent vectorization of the classification maps and the integration of the vector data into a geographical information system.     

Combining Lidar Elevation Data and IKONOS Multispectral Imagery for Coastal Classification Mapping

This article studies the effect of airborne lidar (surface) elevation data on the classification of multispectral IKONOS images over a coastal area. The lidar data and IKONOS images are treated as independent multiple bands to conduct the classification. To do so, the lidar elevation data is first resampled to the same ground spacing interval and stretched to the same radiometric range as the IKONOS images. An unsupervised classification based on the ISODATA algorithm is then used to determine a class schema of six classes: road, water, marsh, roof, tree, and sand. Training sites and checking sites are selected over the lidar-IKONOS merged data set for the subsequent supervised classification and quality evaluation. The complete confusion matrices and average quality indices are presented to assess and compare the classification results. It is shown that the inclusion of the lidar elevation data benefits the separation of classes that have similar spectral characteristics, such as roof and road, water and marsh. The overall classification errors, especially the false positive errors, are reduced by up to 50%. Moreover, by using the lidar elevation data, the classification results show more realistic and homogeneous distribution of geographic features. This property will benefit the subsequent vectorization of the classification maps and the integration of the vector data into a geographical information system.     

星载激光雷达卫星海面风场反演算法研究

The principal purpose of this paper is to extract entire sea surface wind＇s information from spaceborne lidar, and particularly to utilize a appropriate algorithm for removing the interference information due to white caps and subsurface water. Wind speeds are obtained through empirical relationship with sea surface mean square slopes. Wind directions are derived from relationship between wind speeds and wind directions im plied in CMOD5n geophysical models function （GMF）. Whitecaps backscattering signals were distinguished with the help of lidar depolarization ratio measurements and rectified by whitecaps coverage equation. Subsurface water backscattering signals were corrected by means of inverse distance weighted （IDW） from neighborhood non-singular data with optimal subsurface water backscattering calibration parameters. To verify the algorithm reliably, it selected NDBC＇s TAO buoy-laying area as survey region in camparison with buoys＇ wind field data and METOP satellite ASCAT of 25 km single orbit wind field data after temporal-spa tial matching. Validation results showed that the retrieval algorithm works well in terms of root mean square error （RMSE） less than 2m/s and wind direction＇s RMSE less than 21 degree.     

Time characteristics of lidar signals during sensing through roughed sea surface

We have studied the influence of a roughed sea surface and the dispersion of photons over pathlengths on the time characteristics of a pulsed oceanologic airborne lidar. We have derived equations describing the first two temporal moments of a return signal for two types of lidar (a lidar with an isotropic receiver directional pattern and a lidar with an extremely narrow receiver pattern). It is shown that the delay of the return signal and its effective width depend substantially on both the characteristics of the lidar itself and on the parameters of the sea-surface roughness and inherent optical properties.     

机载海洋激光荧光雷达测量海表层叶绿素a浓度的算法研究

基于中国海洋大学研制的我国首台机载海洋激光荧光雷达系统及其测量海水中叶绿素a浓度的方法;对该系统在烟台至荣成沿岸海域进行实验的情况作一回顾,并对实验数据进行了处理,采用拉曼校正归一方法,反演了海表层的叶绿素a浓度,同时利用激光雷达方程反演出了海水的衰减系数;另外,提出了最小二乘拟合提取信号峰值的新反演算法。反演结果与往年同时期采集数据较为吻合,使用最小二乘拟合提取信号峰值的算法反演的叶绿素a浓度更接近于近期实地测得的结果。     

Specific features of the size distribution of atmospheric aerosol in the continent-ocean transition zone

The distribution functions of atmospheric aerosol obtained on the basis of lidar sounding and photometric measurements over marine water areas in continental and transition zones are analyzed. Changes in the microphysical parameters of the distribution function in the continent-ocean transition zone with height are considered on the basis of data taken from three-frequency lidar sounding. Specific features of changes in the particle size distribution with height during intense dust storms and records of volcanogenic aerosol in the tropopause region in the summer of 2008 are described.     

Effect that jet streams have on the vertical ozone distribution and characteristics of tropopause inversion layer in the far east region

The paper describes a lidar and presents the results of lidar sensing of the vertical ozone distribution (VOD); the lidar measurements are analyzed together with data from a network of meteorological stations situated along the 132° E meridian. VODs over Primorye and Japan in the winter period are compared. An analysis showed that an interrelation exists between the subtropical jet stream and the structures of VOD and tropopause inversion layer. Specifically, the region of the VOD local maximum above the tropopause is in the upper part of the tropopause inversion layer and the width of the maximum depends on the distance from the core of the subtropical jet stream. It is found that the local ozone minimum in the lower stratosphere corresponds to the local minimum of the squared Brunt-Vaisala frequency within this same altitude range in the winter season, when two tropopauses frequently overlap. It is conjectured that the local ozone maximum and tropopause inversion layer may be associated with mixing processes in the layer where stratospheric and tropospheric circulation cells come into contact near the core of the subtropical jet stream.     

Lidar sounding of the optical parameter of atmospheric turbulence

The operation of a lidar intended for clear air turbulence (CAT) positioning on the basis of the backscatter enhancement (BSE) effect is analyzed using a turbulence model with a power-law spectrum. Systematic distortions occurring due to a need to regularize the lidar positioning problem solution are estimated. It is shown that the effect of molecular viscosity of air on the positioning result can be neglected if the wave parameter, which characterizes the diffraction manifestation, is higher than 3. This corresponds to sounding ranges of more than 1 km for optical or UV lidars. The analysis results show that the BSE lidar positioning accuracy weakly depends on the exponent in the turbulence spectrum in regions of severe turbulence. The results can justify a physical experiment for the design of an aircraft system for the lidar detection of CAT regions ahead of the flight course.     

Lidar positioning of higher clear-air turbulence regions

The possibility of lidar positioning of regions with higher clear-air turbulence (CAT) is shown. The turbulence is indicated by air density fluctuations generated by it. A scheme with a lidar based on using the backscattering enhecement (BSE) effect in a turbulent medium is considered. A stable solution of the positioning problem is obtained using the statistical regularization method. As is shown on models, CAT regions that are dangerous for civil aviation flights can be detected using such a lidar.     

机载激光系统的数据分类方法及其质量评估

作为一种新型的测量手段,机载激光在多个领域已经得到了广泛的应用,但目前还存在很多亟待解决的问题。特别是分类问题,它在整个系统中不仅所占的工作量比重大,而且较为复杂。本文讨论和总结了目前机载激光的数据分类方法及其质量评估,并对各种方法进行了比较分析。     

Structural features of the planetary boundary layer in the continent-ocean transition zone as inferred from data of lidar and meteorological soundings

The results of an analysis of the annual variation of the planetary boundary layer (PBL) height in the continent-ocean transition zone determined from lidar and meteorological data are presented. Means of the height and its variances are calculated in a month-long window. The PBL heights reconstructed from these measurements are found to differ substantially in the spring and summer seasons. These results are explained by the influence of dust storms and cyclones, which are the most intense in these seasons, on the structure of aerosol in the atmosphere.     

Model of lidar images of nonlinear internal waves

An analytical model of a lidar image of a nonlinear internal wave (IW) described by the Kortewegde Vries equation (KdV) is developed. Peculiarities of lidar images of the nonlinear IW are processed and analyzed using real profiles of hydrooptical and hydrological characteristics in the Barents Sea. Regularities of variations in the thickness of turbid layers caused by the nonlinear IW are found.     

一种新型激光雷达测风浮标设计及海试应用

精确获取剖面风数据对海上风电场规划选址、风能资源评估等至关重要.针对测风塔建设成本高、拆卸移动困难,而传统浮标电源供给较小、摇晃角度大等缺点,设计一种新型激光雷达浮标,实现了对目标海域的风资源剖面数据的观测、解算与自存储.在南海海域进行海试应用,并对观测的剖面风数据和传统大型海洋资料浮标风数据进行同步比测分析.结果 表...     

基于ICESat-2和GSWD数据获取动态水域地形图的方法

传统的湖泊、海岸带测深主要是基于船载多波束系统或者机载激光雷达测深系统,但这些方式测量成本较高。因此提出了一种仅利用卫星观测数据,实现高分辨率动态水域地形图的获取方法,该方法基于ICESat-2单光子激光点云和Landsat图像数据的全球地表水数据集(GSWD),对所获取的高精度激光沿轨轮廓线与多年期湖泊水域边界等高线进行融合匹配。以美国最大的水库米德湖为实验区域,生成高程范围约为34 m的地形图结果,覆盖面积超过307 km~2,水平分辨率为30 m;在与机载激光雷达数据等现场实测结果的对比中,所绘制地形图均方根误差约为2 m。研究方法有望为水位波动较大或水质相对较好的内陆水体(例如湖泊)和沿海地区(例如潮间带)提供一种新的水陆交界区域地形图获取方法。     

Diagnostic tools for 3D unstructured oceanographic data

Most ocean models in current use are built upon structured meshes. It follows that most existing tools for extracting diagnostic quantities (volume and surface integrals, for example) from ocean model output are constructed using techniques and software tools which assume structured meshes. The greater complexity inherent in unstructured meshes (especially fully unstructured grids which are unstructured in the vertical as well as the horizontal direction) has left some oceanographers, accustomed to traditional methods, unclear on how to calculate diagnostics on these meshes. In this paper we show that tools for extracting diagnostic data from the new generation of unstructured ocean models can be constructed with relative ease using open source software. Higher level languages such as Python, in conjunction with packages such as NumPy, SciPy, VTK and MayaVi, provide many of the high-level primitives needed to perform 3D visualisation and evaluate diagnostic quantities, e.g. density fluxes. We demonstrate this in the particular case of calculating flux of vector fields through isosurfaces, using flow data obtained from the unstructured mesh finite element ocean code ICOM, however this tool can be applied to model output from any unstructured grid ocean code.     

Lidar sensing of topographic inhomogeneities on the rough sea surface

The results of lidar sensing of the sea surface carried out from an oceanographic platform in the Black Sea under different hydrometeorological conditions are considered. It is found that the frequency, time, and intensity of the mirror-reflected lidar specks of light vary essentially when the wind wave structure anomalies appear, which arise owing to some physical processes evolving in the air-sea boundary layers. The effects conditioned by an unsteady and non-uniform wind, the hydrological front, the slicks related to internal waves and Langmuir circulation, industrial pollution of the sea surface by surface-active substances, and rainfall are estimated quantitatively. A conclusion about the prospects of application of the lidar specks indication method for ecological monitoring and control of the sea surface state and internal basins is drawn.Translated by Mikhail M. Trufanov.